Domestic Guinea Pig
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Suborder: Hystricomorpha Family: Caviidae Subfamily: Caviinae Genus: Cavia Species: C. porcellus
Binomial name
Cavia porcellus (Erxleben, 1777)
Synonyms
Mus porcellus Cavia cobaya Cavia anolaimae Cavia cutleri Cavia leucopyga Cavia longipilis

The guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), also commonly called the Cavy, is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia. Despite their common name, these animals are not pigs, nor do they come from Guinea. They originated in the Andes, and studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domesticated descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, or C. tschudii, and therefore do not exist naturally in the wild.^[1][2] The guinea pig plays an important role in the folk culture of many Indigenous South American groups, especially as a food source, but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies.^[3] Since the 1960s, efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America.^[4]

In Western societies, the guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century. Their docile nature, their responsiveness to handling and feeding, and the relative ease of caring for them, continue to make the guinea pig a popular pet. Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide, and many specialized breeds of guinea pig, with varying coat colors and compositions, are cultivated by breeders.

Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century. The animals were frequently used as a model organism in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving way to the metaphor “guinea pig” for a test subject, but have since been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats. They are still used in research, primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes, tuberculosis, scurvy, and pregnancy complications.

History

Moche Guinea Pig ca. AD 200 Larco Museum Collection, Lima, Peru

The common guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America (present-day Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia).^[5] Statues dating from ca. 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador.^[6] The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art.^[7] From ca. 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532, selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs, which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds.^[8] They continue to be a food source in the region; most households in the Andean highlands raise the animal, which subsists off the family’s vegetable scraps.^[9] Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous; they are exchanged as gifts, used in customary social and religious ceremonies, and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors.^[10] They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, or curanderos, who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus.^[11] They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick, and are seen as a supernatural medium.^[12] Black guinea pigs are considered especially useful for diagnoses.^[13] The animal also may be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether the cure was effective.^[14] These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes, where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted.^[15]

Spanish, Dutch, and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe, where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty, including Queen Elizabeth I.^[5] The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547, in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola, the animal was likely introduced there by Spanish travelers.^[1] The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner.^[16] Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777; it is an amalgam of Pallas‘ generic designation (1766) and Linnaeus‘ specific conferral (1758).^[1]

Name

The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus, with porcellus being Latin for “little pig”. Cavia is New Latin; it is derived from cabiai, the animal’s name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana.^[17] Cabiai may be an adaptation of the Portuguese çavia (now savia), which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá, meaning rat.^[18] Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo (pl. cuyes, cuyos) in the Spanish of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.^[19] Paradoxically, breeders tend to use the more formal “cavy” to describe the animal, while in scientific and laboratory contexts it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial “guinea pig”.^[20]

How the animals came to be thought of as “pigs” is not clear. They are built somewhat like pigs, with large heads relative to their bodies, stout necks, and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs, and they also spend a large amount of time eating.^[21] They can survive for long periods in small quarters, like a ‘pig pen’, and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe.^[22]

The animal’s name carries porcine connotations in many European languages. The German word for them is Meerschweinchen, literally “little sea pigs”, which has been translated into Polish as świnka morska and into Russian as морская свинка. This derives from nautical history: sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs, which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat; Schweinswal (pig-whale) is German for porpoise, which was another food source for sailors. The French term is Cochon d’Inde (Indian pig); the Dutch used to call it guinees biggetje (Guinean piglet) or Spaanse rat (Spanish rat) in some dialects, and in Portuguese the guinea pig is sometimes referred to as porquinho da Índia (little Indian pig). This is not universal; for example, the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias (little rabbit of India / the Indies).^[19] Equally peculiar, The Chinese refer to them as Holland pig (荷蘭豬).

The origin of “guinea” in “guinea pig” is harder to explain. One theory is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea, leading people to think they had originated there.^[20] “Guinea” was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far-off, unknown country, and so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal’s foreignness.^[23] Another theory suggests the “guinea” in the name is a corruption of “Guiana“, an area in South America, though the animals are not native to that region.^[23][24] A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin; this theory is untenable, because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663, and William Harvey used the term “Ginny-pig” as early as 1653.^[25] Others believe “guinea” may be an alteration of the word coney (rabbit); guinea pigs were referred to as “pig coneys” in Edward Topsell’s 1607 treatise on quadrupeds.^[20]

Traits and environment

Two parti-colored Abyssinian guinea pigs

Guinea pigs are large for rodents, weighing between 700 and 1200g (1.5-2.5 pounds), and measuring between 20 and 25 cm (8–10 inches) in length.^[26] They typically live an average of four to five years, but may live as long as eight years.^[27] According to the 2006 Guinness Book of Records the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years, 10.5 months.^[28]

In the 1990s, a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs, such as guinea pigs, chinchillas, and degus, are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals (similar to lagomorphs).^[29][30] Subsequent research using wider sampling has restored consensus among mammalian biologists that the current classification of rodents as monophyletic is justified.^[31][32]

Natural habitat

Cavia porcellus is not found naturally in the wild; it is likely descendant from some closely related species of cavies, such as Cavia aperea, Cavia fulgida, and Cavia tschudii, which are still commonly found in various regions of South America.^[1] Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century, such as Cavia anolaimae and Cavia guianae, may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild.^[8] Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of the cow. They are social, living in the wild in small groups which consist of several females (sows), a male (boar), and the young (which in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature are called pups). They move together in groups (herds) eating grass or other vegetation, and do not store food.^[33] While they do not burrow or build nests, they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals, as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation.^[33] They are crepuscular, tending to be most active during dawn and dusk, when it is harder for predators to spot them.^[34]

Domestic habitat

Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more; groups of sows, or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations. Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual guinea pigs, and testing of boars shows that their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females.^[35] Groups of boars may also get along, provided that their cage has enough space, they are introduced at an early age, and no females are present.^[36] Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts, and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between.^[34] Activity is scattered randomly over the 24 hours of the day; aside from avoidance of intense light, no regular circadian patterns are apparent.^[34]

This cat has accepted this pair of guinea pigs. The success of this type of interspecies interaction varies according to the individual animals involved

Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages, although some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs will dedicate entire rooms to their pets. Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used, although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot (ulcerative pododermatitis).^[37] “Cubes and Coroplast” (or C&C) style cages are now a common choice.^[38] Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material. Bedding made from Red Cedar and pine, both softwoods, was commonly used in past decades, but these materials are now believed to contain harmful phenols (aromatic hydrocarbons) and oils.^[39] Safer beddings include those made from hardwoods (such as aspen), paper products, and corn cob materials are other alternatives.^[39] Guinea pigs tend to be messy within their cages; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them, and their urine crystallizes on cage surfaces and can be difficult to remove.^[40] After its cage has been cleaned, a guinea pig will typically urinate and drag the lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory.^[41] Male guinea pigs may also mark their territory in this way when they are taken out of their cages.

Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species. Cohousing of guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections,^[42] and such rodents may act aggressively toward the guinea pig.^[43] Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey, though some (such as dogs) can be trained to accept them.^[44] Guinea pigs can be safely housed with degu as they share the same dietary needs and have similar behavioural traits.^{[citation needed]} Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits. Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage.^[44][45] However, as lagomorphs, rabbits have different nutritional requirements, and so the two species cannot be fed the same food.^[46] Rabbits may also harbor diseases (such as the respiratory infections Bordetella and Pasteurella), to which guinea pigs are susceptible.^[47] Even the dwarf rabbit is much stronger than the guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury.^[48]

Behaviour

Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food, and can accurately remember a learned path for months. Their strongest problem solving strategy is motion.^[49] While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles, they cannot climb, and are not particularly agile. They startle extremely easily, and will either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid, darting motions when they sense danger.^[34] Larger groups of startled guinea pigs will “stampede”, running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators.^[50] When excited, guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air (known as “popcorning”), a movement analogous to the ferret’s war dance.^[51] They are also exceedingly good swimmers.^[52]

Guinea pigs “social groom”

Like many rodents, guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming, and they regularly self-groom.^[53] A milky-white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process.^[54] Groups of boars will often chew each other’s hair, but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group, rather than a social gesture.^[52] Dominance is also established through biting (especially of the ears), piloerection, aggressive noises, head thrusts, and leaping attacks.^[55] Non-sexual simulated mounting for dominance is also common among same-sex groups.

Guinea pigs have poor sight, but well-developed senses of hearing, smell, and touch.^[56] Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species.^[57] Some sounds are:^[58][59]

• Wheek – A loud noise, the name of which is onomatopoeic, also known as a Whistle. An expression of general excitement, it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to feeding. It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are running. If a guinea pig is lost, it may wheek for assistance. listen (help·info)
• Bubbling or Purring – This sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself, such as when being petted or held. They may also make this sound when grooming, crawling around to investigate a new place, or when given food. listen (help·info)
• Rumbling – This sound is normally related to dominance within a group, though it can also come as a response to comfort or contentment. In these cases the rumble often sounds higher and the body vibrates shortly. While courting, a male usually purrs deeply, swaying and circling the female^[60] in a behavior called “rumblestrutting”. A low rumble while walking away reluctantly shows passive resistance. listen (help·info)
• Chutting and Whining – These are sounds made in pursuit situations, by the pursuer and pursuee, respectively. listen (help·info)
• Chattering – This sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth, and is generally a sign of warning. Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound. A more relaxed type of gnashing often means the guinea pig wants a treat that is somewhere nearby but out of reach.
• Squealing or Shrieking – A high-pitched sound of discontent, in response to pain or danger. listen (help·info)
• Chirping – This less-common sound, likened to bird song, seems to be related to stress, or when a baby guinea pig wants to be fed. Very rarely, the chirping will last for several minutes. listen (help·info)

Breeding

Pregnant sow one week before delivering three pups

The guinea pig is able to breed year-round, with birth peaks usually coming in the spring; as many as five litters can be produced per year.^[8] The gestation period lasts from 59–72 days, with an average of 63–68 days.^[41] Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups, pregnant females may become large and aubergine-shaped, although the change in size and shape varies. Newborn pups are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight;^[52] they are immediately mobile, and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle. Litters yield 1–6 pups, with an average of three;^[27] the largest recorded litter size is 17.^[61]

In smaller litters, difficulties may occur during labour due to over-sized pups. Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth, but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development, lack of access to the mother’s milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns.^[62] Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating.^[63]

Male and female guinea pigs do not differ in external appearance apart from general size. The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes. Female genitals are distinguished by a Y-shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap; while the male genitals may look similar with the penis and anus forming a like shape, the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair.^[64] The male’s testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling.

Guinea pig pup at eight hours old

Males reach sexual maturity at 3–5 weeks; females can be fertile as early as four weeks and can carry litters before they are adults.^[65] Females that have never given birth commonly develop irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, after six months of age.^[41] If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will not widen sufficiently; this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth.^[66] Females can become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it is not healthy for a female to be thus constantly pregnant.^[67]

Toxemia of pregnancy is common and kills many pregnant females. Signs of toxemia include anorexia, lack of energy, excessive salivation, a sweet or fruity breath odor due to ketones, and seizures in advanced cases.^[68] Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates.^[69] Other serious complications of pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcaemia, and mastitis.^[70]

Diet

A silver agouti guinea pig eating grass

Grass is the guinea pig’s natural diet. Their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter, and grow continuously throughout the animal’s life.^[71] Most grass-eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract; while guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents, they must also supplement their diet by coprophagy, the eating of their own feces.^[72] However, they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately, but produce special soft pellets, called cecotropes, which recycle B vitamins, fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion.^[73] The cecotropes (or caecal pellets) are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese.^[46] They share this behaviour with rabbits. In older boars (the condition is rarer in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak. This creates a condition known as anal impaction, which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes, though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass.^[74] The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces.

Guinea pigs benefit from feeding on fresh grass hay, such as timothy hay, in addition to food pellets which are often based from timothy. Alfalfa is also a popular food choice; most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it,^[75] though there exists some controversy over the feeding of alfalfa to adult guinea pigs. Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that, as a legume rather than a grass hay, alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity, as well as bladder stones due to excess calcium, in any but pregnant and very young guinea pigs.^[76][77] However, published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a source for replenishment of protein, amino acids, and fiber.^[78][79]

Like humans, but unlike most other mammals, guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy. Guinea pigs require about 10 mg (0.15 gr) of vitamin C daily (20 mg (0.31 gr) if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as broccoli, apple, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or through dietary supplements.^[80] Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and hydrogen ions; adequate amounts of vitamins E, A, and D are also necessary.^[81] Imbalanced diets have been associated with muscular dystrophy, metastatic calcification, difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies, and teeth problems.^[82] Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables, having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume, and their habits are difficult to change after maturity.^[83] They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet; they may stop eating and starve rather than accepting new food types.^[52] A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present.^[84] Because guinea pigs’ teeth grow constantly, they routinely gnaw, lest their teeth become too large for their mouth, a common problem in rodents.^[38] Guinea pigs will also chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber.

A number of plants are poisonous to guinea pigs, including bracken, bryony, buttercup, charlock, deadly nightshade, foxglove, hellebore, hemlock, Lily of the Valley, mayweed, monkshood, privet, ragwort, rhubarb, speedwell, toadflax, and wild celery.^[85] Additionally, any plant which grows from a bulb (e.g., tulip and onion) is normally considered poisonous.^[85]

Health

A parti-colored guinea pig suffering from Torticollis, or wry neck

Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, typically characterized by sluggishness), abscesses due to infection (often in the neck, due to hay embedded in the throat, or from external scratches), and infections by lice, mites, or fungus.^[86]

Mange mites (Trixacarus caviae) are a common cause of hair loss, and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching, unusually aggressive behavior when touched (due to pain), and, in some instances, seizures.^[87] Guinea pigs may also suffer from “running lice” (Gliricola porcelli), a small white insect which can be seen moving through the hair; the eggs of these lice, which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair, are sometimes referred to as “static lice”. Giving a bath with neem oil soap is a gentle and effective way of ridding the pig of lice. Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts.^[88]

Foreign bodies, especially small pieces of hay or straw, can become lodged in the eyes of guinea pigs, resulting in excessive blinking, tearing, and in some cases an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer.^[89] Hay or straw dust will also cause sneezing. While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically, frequent sneezing may be a symptom of pneumonia, especially in response to atmospheric changes. Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal.^[90]

Because the guinea pig has a stout, compact body, the animal more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat.^[91] Its normal body temperature is 101–104 °F (38.5–40 °C),^[92] and so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to the human’s, about 65–75 °F (18–24 °C).^[91] Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 90 °F (32 °C) have been linked to hyperthermia and death, especially among pregnant sows.^[91] Guinea pigs are not well suited to environments that feature wind or frequent drafts,^[93] and respond poorly to extremes of humidity outside of the range of 30–70%.^[94]

Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness, and many times health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages. Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics, including penicillin, which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and in some cases, death.^[95]

Similar to the inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animal (such as hip dysplasia in canines), a number of genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported. Most commonly, the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system.^[96] Other genetic disorders include “waltzing disease” (deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles), palsy, and tremor conditions.^[97]

Pets

A guinea pig being held

If handled correctly early in their life, guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried, and seldom bite or scratch.^[52] They are timid explorers, and rarely attempt to escape from their cages, even when an opportunity presents itself.^[45] Guinea pigs who become familiar with their owner will whistle on the owner’s approach; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors, where their food is most commonly stored.

Domesticated guinea pigs come in many breeds, which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America. These varieties vary in hair and color composition. The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair (also known as the American), which have a short, smooth coat, and the Abyssinian, whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks, or rosettes. Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie (or Silkie), both straight longhair breeds, and the Texel, a curly longhair.

Cavy Clubs and Associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide. The American Cavy Breeders Association, an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders’ Association, is the governing body in the United States and Canada.^[98] The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in the United Kingdom. Similar organizations exist in Australia (Australian National Cavy Council)^[99] and New Zealand (New Zealand Cavy Club).^[100] Each club publishes its own Standard of Perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing.

Cultural and media influence

A lilac, orange and white Satin Peruvian guinea pig (show-length coat)

As a result of their widespread popularity in human domestic life, and especially because of their popularity in households with children, guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media. Some noted appearances of the animal in literature are The Fairy Caravan, a novel by Beatrix Potter,^[101] and Michael Bond’s Olga da Polga series for children,^[102] both of which feature guinea pigs as the central protagonist. Another appearance is in The Magician’s Nephew by C. S. Lewis: in the first (chronologically) of his The Chronicles of Narnia series, a guinea pig is the first creature to travel to the Wood between the Worlds.^[103] The short story Pigs Is Pigs by Ellis Parker Butler is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence; two guinea pigs held at a train station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are “pigs” for the purpose of determining freight charges.^[104] In the Golden Hamster Saga books, there are two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso who are modern-day thespians (named after Enrico Caruso) who serve as secondary characters, and often irritate the main character, Freddy Auratus who strongly dislikes their acting antics.

Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television. In the TV movie Shredderman Rules, the main character and the main character’s crush both have guinea pigs which both play a minor part in the plot. A guinea pig named Rodney, voiced by Chris Rock, was a prominent character in the 1998 film Dr. Dolittle and Linny the Guinea pig is a co-star on Nick Jr.’s Wonder Pets. Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s, notably for Egg Banking plc,^[105] Snapple, and Blockbuster Video.^[106] The Blockbuster campaign is considered by some guinea pig advocates to have been a factor in the rise of cohousing guinea pigs and rabbits.^[48] In the South Park season 12 episode “Pandemic 2: The Startling“, giant guinea pigs, and giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes, are portrayed as rampaging over the entire Earth. The Walt Disney Pictures movie G-Force, scheduled to be released in the United States in July 2009, features a group of highly intelligent guinea pigs trained as operatives of the U.S. government.

Scientific research

A guinea pig being examined by a scientist for general health and pulmonary condition

The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century, when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures.^[107] In 1780, Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter, a device used to measure heat production. The heat from the guinea pig’s respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter, showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, similar to a candle burning.^[108] Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century, through the experiments of Louis Pasteur, Émile Roux, and Robert Koch.^[109] Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space-flight several times, first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9, 1961 – with a successful recovery.^[110] China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers.^[111]

In English, the term guinea pig is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation. This dates back to the early 20th century; the Oxford English Dictionary notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913.^[112] In 1933, Consumers Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, extending the metaphor to consumer society.^[113] The book became a national bestseller in the United States, thus further popularizing the term, and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement.^[114] The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel The Guinea Pigs by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism.^[115]

Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century; about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s,^[116] but that total decreased to about 375,000 by the mid-1990s.^[52] As of 2007, they constitute approximately 2% of the current total of laboratory animals.^[116] In the past they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions, or anaphylaxis.^[117] Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation.^[117] Since the middle 20th century, they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats. This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents, although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study, especially regarding coat color.^[97][118] In 2004, the U.S.’s National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig.^[119]

The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases.^[117] Common uses included identification of brucellosis, Chagas disease, cholera, diphtheria, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and various strains of typhus.^[117] They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis, since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria.^[116] Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which, like humans, cannot synthesize vitamin C but must obtain it from their diet, they are ideal for researching scurvy.^[116] Complement, an important component for serology, was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig.^[116] Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation,^[120] and are a suitable species for the generation of anti-insulin antibodies.^[121] Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals, the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation, a role usually played by growth hormone.^[122] Additionally, guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and, because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia, of pre-eclampsia in human females.^[63]

Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains. Aside from the common American or English stock, the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin-Hartley; these English strains are albino, although pigmented strains are also available.^[123] Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research, such as immune system molecular biology. Of the inbred strains that have been created, the two that are still used with any frequency are, following Sewall Wright’s designations, “Strain 2″ and “Strain 13″.^[97][123]

Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s, particularly for dermatological studies. A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979.^[124] An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978, and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982.^[125] Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds, and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as “skinny pigs“.

As food

Two Peruvian dishes of cuy meat

Guinea pigs (called cuy, cuye, curí) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes. Traditionally, the animal was usually reserved for ceremonial meals by indigenous people in the Andean highlands, but since the 1960s it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people.^[126] It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia, particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador (mainly in the Sierra) and Colombia.^[127] Because guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly, they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals, such as pigs and cows;^[128] moreover, they can be raised in an urban environment. Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income, and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large-scale municipal fairs.^[129] Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol, and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken.^[4][130] The animal may be served fried (chactado or frito), broiled (asado), or roasted (al horno), and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee.^[131] Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy, a soup dish.^[131] Pachamanca or huatia, a process similar to barbecueing, is also popular, and is usually served with corn beer (chicha) in traditional settings.^[131]

Cuy being raised at home in the traditional Andean fashion

Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco shows Christ and the twelve disciples dining on guinea pig.^[4] The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru. A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy (”collecting the cuys”) is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru, and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima.^[132] It is a syncretistic event, combining elements of Catholicism and pre-Columbian religious practices, and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints.^[132] The exact form that the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town; in some localities, a sirvinti (servant) is appointed to go from door to door, collecting donations of guinea pigs, while in others, guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight.^[132] Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities, and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures.^[132] In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador, guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo, which is a community meal, and the Octava, where castillos (greased poles) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars, from which several guinea pigs may be hung.^[133] The Peruvian town of Churin has an annual festival which involves dressing guinea pigs in elaborate costumes for a competition.^[134]

Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat, and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve cuy as a delicacy.^[135] Peruvian research universities, especially La Molina National Agrarian University, began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger-sized guinea pigs.^[136] Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America, in order to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable.^[137] In the 1990s and 2000s, the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe, Japan, and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of these countries in northern South America.^[4] Efforts have also been made to introduce guinea pig husbandry in developing countries in West Africa.^[128] Nevertheless, as a food source they are still generally considered taboo in other countries in America and Europe; in reality television, guinea pig meat has been consumed as an exotic dish by such Western celebrity chefs as Andrew Zimmern (for his show Bizarre Foods) and Anthony Bourdain in No Reservations.

See also

Mammals portal

• British Cavy Council
• Peter Gurney
• Save the Newchurch Guinea Pigs

Footnotes

References

External links

Look up guinea pig in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cavia porcellus

Wikispecies has information related to: Cavia porcellus

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Animal Care/Guinea pig

• Australian National Cavy Council Inc
• ACBA – American Cavy Breeders’ Association
• Laboratory Guinea Pig
• Domestic Guinea Pig Genome Project page at GenBank

Clownfish
Ocellaris clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Actinopterygii Order: Perciformes Family: Pomacentridae Subfamily: Amphiprioninae
Genera
Amphiprion Bloch & Schneider, 1801 Premnas Cuvier, 1816

Clownfish and anemonefish are fishes from the subfamily Amphiprioninae in the family Pomacentridae. About twenty eight species are recognized, one in the genus Premnas, while the remaining are in the genus Amphiprion. In the wild they all form symbiotic mutualisms with sea anemones. Depending on species, clownfish are overall yellow, orange, reddish, or blackish, and many show white bars or patches. The largest reach a length of 18 cm (7 in), while the smallest barely reach 10 cm (4 in).

Ecology and life history

Clownfish are native to warmer waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, including the Great Barrier Reef and the Red Sea. While most species have restricted distributions, others are widespread. They are generally highly host specific, and especially the genera Heteractis and Stichodactyla, and the species Entacmaea quadricolor are frequent partners. The clownfish feeds on undigested matter which otherwise potentially could harm the sea anemone, and the faecal matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. It has also been suggested that the activity of the clownfish results in greater water circulation around the sea anemone. In addition to providing food for the clownfish, the sea anemone also provides safety due to its poison.

Clownfish and certain damselfish are the only species of fishes that can avoid the potent poison of a sea anemone. There are several theories about how this is accomplished:

• The mucus coating of the fish may be based on sugars rather than proteins. This would mean that anemones fail to recognize the fish as a potential food source and do not fire their nematocysts, or sting organelles.

• The coevolution of certain species of clownfish with specific anemone host species and may have acquired an immunity to the nematocysts and toxins of their host anemone. Experimentation has shown that Amphiprion percula may develop resistance to the toxin from Heteractis magnifica, but it is not totally protected, since it was shown experimentally to die when its skin, devoid of mucus, was exposed to the nematocysts of its host.^[1]
  

  

  A pair of pink anemonefish (Amphiprion perideraion) in their anemone home.

Clownfish live in small groups inhabiting a single anemone. The group consists of a breeding pair, which cohabit with a few non-reproductive, “pre-pubescent”, and smaller male clownfish. When the female dies, the dominant male changes sex and becomes the female.^[2] This life history strategy is known as sequential hermaphroditism. Because clownfish are all born as males, they are protandrous hermaphrodites (pro=first; androus=male).^[3]This is in contrast with another form of hermaphroditism, known as protogyny, in which all fish are born as females but can change to males later.

Clownfish lay eggs on any flat surface close to their host anemones. In the wild, clownfish spawn around the time of the full moon and the male parent guards them until they hatch about 6 to 10 days later, typically 2 hours after dusk.^{[citation needed]} Clownfish are omnivorous: in the wild they eat live food such as algae, plankton, molluscs, and crustacea; in captivity they can survive on live food, fish flakes, and fish pellets. They feed mostly on copepods and mysids, and undigested food from their host anemones.^{[citation needed]}

Depending on the species, clownfish can lay hundreds or thousands of eggs. Clownfish were the first type of marine ornamental fish to be successfully bred in captivity on a large scale. It is one of a handful of marine ornamentals whose complete life cycle has been successfully completed in captivity.

In the aquarium

A clownfish swimming.

Clownfish are a popular fish for reef aquariums of 10 gallons or more. Clownfish are now tank-bred to lower the number taken from the wild. Wild-caught tropical fishes are more likely to die within a week of purchase, due to catching methods like dynamite fishing and nets with “rockhoppers.” Compared to wild-caught clownfish, tank-bred clownfish are more disease resistant and also less affected by stress when introduced to the aquarium.

When a sea anemone is not available in an aquarium, they may settle in some varieties of soft corals, or large polyp stony corals. If the fish settles in a coral, it could agitate the fish’s skin, and, in some cases, may kill the coral. Once an anemone or coral has been adopted, the clownfish will defend it. As there is less pressure to forage for food in an aquarium, it is common for clownfish to remain within 2-4 inches of their host for an entire lifetime.

Clownfish that are far removed from their parents through captive breeding may not have the same instinctual behavior to live in an anemone. They may have to be coaxed into finding the anemone by the home aquarist. Even then, there is no guarantee that the anemone will host the clownfish.

Video of a clownfish swimming around an anemone.

Species

• Genus Amphiprion:^[4]
  • Amphiprion akallopisos – Skunk clownfish
  • Amphiprion akindynos – Barrier Reef Anemonefish
  • Amphiprion allardi – Twobar anemonefish
  • Amphiprion bicinctus – Twoband anemonefish
  • Amphiprion chagosensis – Chagos anemonefish
  • Amphiprion chrysogaster – Mauritian anemonefish
  • Amphiprion chrysopterus – Orange-fin anemonefish
  • Amphiprion clarkii – Yellowtail clownfish
  • Amphiprion ephippium – Saddle anemonefish
  • Amphiprion frenatus – Tomato clownfish
  • Amphiprion fuscocaudatus – Seychelles anemonefish
  • Amphiprion latezonatus – Wide-band Anemonefish
  • Amphiprion latifasciatus – Madagascar anemonefish
  • Amphiprion leucokranos – Whitebonnet anemonefish
  • Amphiprion mccullochi – Whitesnout anemonefish
  • Amphiprion melanopus – Fire clownfish
  • Amphiprion nigripes – Maldive anemonefish
  • Amphiprion ocellaris – Clown anemonefish
  • Amphiprion omanensis – Oman anemonefish
  • Amphiprion percula – Orange clownfish
  • Amphiprion perideraion – Pink skunk clownfish
  • Amphiprion polymnus – Saddleback clownfish
  • Amphiprion rubacinctus – Red Anemonefish
  • Amphiprion sandaracinos – Yellow clownfish
  • Amphiprion sebae – Sebae anemonefish
  • Amphiprion thiellei – Thielle’s anemonefish
  • Amphiprion tricinctus – Three-band anemonefish
• Genus Premnas:^[5]
  • Premnas biaculeatus – Maroon clownfish

Gallery

Sebae anemonefish (Amphiprion sebae) and sea anemone in the Maldives.	Allard’s clownfish (Amphiprion allardi).	Maldive anemonefish (Amphiprion nigripes). It is sometimes called the Black-finned anemonefish due to its black pelvic and anal fins.	Pink skunk clownfish (Amphiprion perideraion).
Saddleback clownfish (Amphiprion polymnus) off Sulawesi, Indonesia.	Yellow clownfish (Amphiprion sandaracinos) and sea anemone off Sulawesi, Indonesia.	Yellowtail clownfish (Amphiprion clarkii) with sea anemone.	Orange-fin anemonefish (Amphiprion chrysopterus) is one of the few anemonefish with a white tail.
Twoband anemonefish (Amphiprion bicinctus). It is, as suggested by its alternative common name, Red Sea clownfish, almost entirely restricted to the Red Sea.	Clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris) occurs in a ‘normal’ orange and a melanistic blackish variant. The exact taxonomic status of the latter is unclear.	Fire clownfish (Amphiprion melanopus) and sea anemone at the Great Barrier Reef.	Maroon clownfish (Premnas biaculeatus), here with a tang, is the only member of the genus Premnas, and the largest species of clownfish.

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Amphiprioninae

• (German) Photo Gallery of Amphiprion ocellaris and their eggs
• Monterey Bay Aquarium: Video and information

Rabbit
Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Superphylum: Chordata Phylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Lagomorpha Family: Leporidae in part
Genera
Pentalagus Bunolagus Nesolagus Romerolagus Brachylagus Sylvilagus Oryctolagus Poelagus

Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. There are seven different genera in the family classified as rabbits, including the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), Cottontail rabbit (genus Sylvilagus; 13 species), and the Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi, endangered species on Amami Ōshima, Japan). There are many other species of rabbit, and these, along with pikas and hares, make up the order Lagomorpha.

Location and habitat

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Characteristics and anatomy

This section requires expansion.

Cecal pellets

Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach, and it, along with the large intestine, makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit’s digestive tract.^[1] Cecotropes, sometimes called “night feces”, come from the cecum and are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit’s health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.^[2]

Diet and eating habits

Rabbits are herbivores who feed by grazing on grass, forbs, and leafy weeds. In consequence, their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by passing two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are immediately eaten. Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing the cud as do cows and many other herbivores) to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients.^[3]

Rabbits graze heavily and rapidly for roughly the first half hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. In this time, the rabbit will also excrete many hard fecal pellets, being waste pellets that will not be reingested. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals. While out of the burrow, the rabbit will occasionally reingest its soft, partially digested pellets; this is rarely observed, since the pellets are reingested as they are produced. Reingestion is most common within the burrow between 8 o’clock in the morning and 5 o’clock in the evening, being carried out intermittently within that period.

Hard pellets are made up of hay-like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk, being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets. These are only released outside the burrow and are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted. They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls.

The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. These pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat.^[4] This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.^[5]

Rabbits are incapable of vomiting due to the physiology of their digestive system.^[6]

Behavior

This section requires expansion.

A rabbit’s side view

Reproduction

This section requires expansion.

domestic pet kittens 1 hour after birth

Nest with young

Diseases

• Myxomatosis
• Coccidiosis (of the liver and the intestines)
• Pasteurellosis

Differences from hares

Rabbits are clearly distinguished from hares in that rabbits are altricial, having young that are born blind and hairless. In contrast, hares are generally born with hair and are able to see (precocial). All rabbits except the cottontail rabbit live underground in burrows or warrens, while hares live in simple nests above the ground (as does the cottontail rabbit), and usually do not live in groups. Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with longer ears, and have black markings on their fur. Hares have not been domesticated, while rabbits are often kept as house pets. In gardens, they are typically kept in hutches — small, wooden, house-like boxes — that protect the rabbits from the environment and predators.

As pets

Pet rabbits kept indoors are referred to as house rabbits. House rabbits typically have an indoor pen or cage and a rabbit-safe place to run and exercise, such as an exercise pen, living room or family room. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and some can learn to come when called. Domestic rabbits that do not live indoors can also often serve as companions for their owners, typically living in an easily accessible hutch outside the home. Some pet rabbits live in outside hutches during the day for the benefit of fresh air and natural daylight and are brought inside at night.

Whether indoor or outdoor, pet rabbits’ pens are often equipped with enrichment activities such as shelves, tunnels, balls, and other toys. Pet rabbits are often provided additional space in which to get exercise, simulating the open space a rabbit would traverse in the wild. Exercise pens or lawn pens are often used to provide a safe place for rabbits to run.

A pet rabbit’s diet typically consists of unlimited Timothy hay, a small amount of pellets, and a small portion of fresh vegetables.

Rabbits are social animals. Rabbits as pets can find their companionship with a variety of creatures, including humans, other rabbits, guinea pigs, and sometimes even cats and dogs. Rabbits do not make good pets for small children because they do not know how to stay quiet, calm, and gentle around rabbits. As prey animals, rabbits are alert, timid creatures that startle easily. They have fragile bones, especially in their backs, that require support on the belly and bottom when picked up. Children 10 years old and older usually have the maturity required to care for a rabbit.

The service and therapy animals organization Delta Society has used pet rabbits as therapy for adults and children since the 1970s.

As food and clothing

An Australian ‘Rabbiter’ circa 1900

A load of rabbit skins, Northern Tablelands, New South Wales

Rabbits may be slaughtered commercially for their meat.

Leporids such as European rabbits and hares are a food meat in Europe, South America, North America, some parts of the Middle East, and China, among other places.

Rabbit is still commonly sold in UK butchers and markets, although not frequently in supermarkets. At farmers markets and the famous Borough Market in London, rabbits will be displayed dead and hanging unbutchered in the traditional style next to braces of pheasant and other small game. Rabbit meat was once commonly sold in Sydney, Australia, the sellers of which giving the name to the rugby league team the South Sydney Rabbitohs, but quickly became unpopular after the disease myxomatosis was introduced in an attempt to wipe out the feral rabbit population (see also Rabbits in Australia).

When used for food, rabbits are both hunted and bred for meat. Snares or guns along with dogs are usually employed when catching wild rabbits for food. In many regions, rabbits are also bred for meat, a practice called cuniculture. Rabbits can then be killed by hitting the back of their heads, a practice from which the term rabbit punch is derived. Rabbit meat is a source of high quality protein.^[7] It can be used in most ways chicken meat is used. In fact, well-known chef Mark Bittman says that domesticated rabbit tastes like chicken because both are blank palettes upon which any desired flavors can be layered.^[8] Rabbit meat is leaner than beef, pork, and chicken meat. Rabbit products are generally labeled in three ways, the first being Fryer. This is a young rabbit between 1½ and 3½ pounds and up to 12 weeks in age. This type of meat is tender and fine grained. The next product is a Roaster; they are usually over 4 pounds and up to 8 months in age. The flesh is firm and coarse grained and less tender than a fryer. Then there are giblets which include the liver and heart. One of the most common types of rabbit to be bred for meat is New Zealand white rabbit.

There are several health issues associated with the use of rabbits for meat, one of which is Tularemia or Rabbit Fever.^[9] Another is so-called rabbit starvation, due most likely to essential fatty acid deficiencies in rabbit meat and synthesis limitations in human beings.

Rabbits are a favorite food item of large pythons, such as Burmese pythons and reticulated pythons, both in the wild, as well as pet pythons. A typical diet for example, for a pet Burmese python, is a rabbit once a week.^{[citation needed]}

Rabbit pelts are sometimes used in for clothing and accessories, such as scarves or hats. Angora rabbits are bread for their long, fine hair, which can be sheared and harvested like sheep wool. Rabbits are very good producers of manure; additionally, their urine, being high in nitrogen, makes lemon trees very productive. Their milk may also be of great medicinal or nutritional benefit due to its high protein content.^{[citation needed]}

Environmental problems

A European Rabbit afflicted by Myxomatosis in England

Rabbits have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans. As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed, wild rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture. Gassing, barriers (fences), shooting, snaring, and ferreting have been used to control rabbit populations, but the most effective measures are diseases such as myxomatosis (myxo or mixi, colloquially) and calicivirus. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus. The virus was developed in Spain, and is beneficial to rabbit farmers. If it were to make its way into wild populations in areas such as Australia, it could create a population boom, as those diseases are the most serious threats to rabbit survival. Rabbits in Australia are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them.^{[citation needed]}

Classifications

An Eastern Cottontail.

Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the order Rodentia (rodent) until 1912, when they were moved into a new order Lagomorpha. This order also includes pikas.

Order Lagomorpha

• Family Leporidae
  • Genus Pentalagus
    • Amami Rabbit/Ryūkyū Rabbit, Pentalagus furnessi
  • Genus Bunolagus
    • Bushman Rabbit, Bunolagus monticularis
  • Genus Nesolagus
    • Sumatran Striped Rabbit, Nesolagus netscheri
    • Annamite Striped Rabbit, Nesolagus timminsi
  • Genus Romerolagus
    • Volcano Rabbit, Romerolagus diazi
  • Genus Brachylagus
    • Pygmy Rabbit, Brachylagus idahoensis
  • Genus Sylvilagus
    • Forest Rabbit, Sylvilagus brasiliensis
    • Dice’s Cottontail, Sylvilagus dicei
    • Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus bachmani
    • San Jose Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus mansuetus
    • Swamp Rabbit, Sylvilagus aquaticus
    • Marsh Rabbit, Sylvilagus palustris
    • Eastern Cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus
    • New England Cottontail, Sylvilagus transitionalis
    • Mountain Cottontail, Sylvilagus nuttallii
    • Desert Cottontail, Sylvilagus audubonii
    • Omilteme Cottontail, Sylvilagus insonus
    • Mexican Cottontail, Sylvilagus cunicularis
    • Tres Marias Rabbit, Sylvilagus graysoni
  • Genus Oryctolagus
    • European Rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus
  • Genus Poelagus
    • Central African Rabbit, Poelagus marjorita
  • Three other genera in family, regarded as hares, not rabbits

Naming

Rabbits are often known affectionately by the pet name bunny or bunny rabbit, especially when referring to young, domesticated rabbits. Originally, the word for an adult rabbit was coney or cony, while rabbit referred only to the young animals. The word rabbit, however, mostly replaced the older word during the 19th century after coney became a vulgarism by analogy to the word cunt (widely considered vulgar) due to their similar pronunciation. When coney was used to refer to rabbits, its pronunciation was changed to [koʊ.ni] (rhymes with “phoney”), instead of the original [kʌ.ni] (rhymes with “money”) because of this.^{[10][11][12][13]} More recently, the term kit has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A group of young rabbits is referred to as a kindle. Young hares are called leverets, and this term is sometimes informally applied to any young rabbit. Male rabbits are called bucks and females does. A group of rabbits or hares is often called a fluffle in parts of Northern Canada.

In culture and literature

Rabbit and Acorn Jay Birds, a Song Dynasty era painting by Chinese artist Cui Bai, painted in 1061 AD.

Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. The species’ role as a prey animal also lends itself as a symbol of innocence, another Easter connotation.

Additionally, rabbits are often used as symbols of playful sexuality, which also relates to the human perception of innocence, as well as its reputation as a prolific breeder.

Folklore and mythology

The rabbit often appears in folklore as the trickster archetype, as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies.

• In Aztec mythology, a pantheon of four hundred rabbit gods known as Centzon Totochtin, led by Ometotchtli or Two Rabbit, represented fertility, parties, and drunkenness.
• In Central Africa “Kalulu” the rabbit is widely known as a tricky character, getting the better of bargains.^{[citation needed]}
• In Chinese literature, rabbits accompany Chang’e on the Moon. Also associated with the Chinese New Year (or Lunar New Year), rabbits are also one of the twelve celestial animals in the Chinese Zodiac for the Chinese calendar. It is interesting to note that the Vietnamese lunar new year replaced the rabbit with a cat in their calendar, as rabbits did not inhabit Vietnam.
• In the folklore of the United States, a rabbit’s foot is frequently carried as an amulet, and is often used on keychains, where it is thought to bring luck. The practice derives from the system of African-American folk magic called hoodoo.
• In Japanese tradition, rabbits live on the Moon where they make mochi, the popular snack of mashed sticky rice. This comes from interpreting the pattern of dark patches on the moon as a rabbit standing on tiptoes on the left pounding on an usu, a Japanese mortar (See also: Moon rabbit). A popular culture manifestation of this tradition can be found in the character title character of Sailor Moon, whose name is Usagi Tsukino, a Japanese pun on the words “rabbit of the moon.”
• In Jewish folklore, rabbits (shfanim) are associated with cowardice.
• A Korean myth similar to the Japanese counterpart presents rabbits living on the moon making rice cakes (Tteok in Korean).
• In Native American Ojibwe mythology, Nanabozho, or Great Rabbit, is an important deity related to the creation of the world.
• In Ugandan folklore, Shufti the rabit was the leader of the peoples when the sun God burnt the crops to the ground after the skull of the golden albatross was left out on the plains on the first day of the year.
• A Vietnamese mythological story portrays the rabbit of innocence and youthfulness. The Gods of the myth are shown to be hunting and killing rabbits to show off their power.

On the Isle of Portland in Dorset, UK, the rabbit is said to be unlucky and speaking its name can cause upset with older residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the quarrying industry, where piles of extracted stone (not fit for sale) were built into tall rough walls (to save space) directly behind the working quarry face; the rabbit’s natural tendency to burrow would weaken these “walls” and cause collapse, often resulting in injuries or even death.

The name rabbit is often substituted with words such as “long ears” or “underground mutton”, so as not to have to say the actual word and bring bad luck to oneself. It is said that a public house (on the island) can be cleared of people by calling out the word rabbit and while this was very true in the past, it has gradually become more fable than fact over the past 50 years.

Other fictional rabbits

The rabbit as trickster appears in American popular culture; for example the Br’er Rabbit character from African-American folktales and Disney animation; and the Warner Bros. cartoon character Bugs Bunny.

Anthropomorphized rabbits have appeared in a host of works of film, literature, and technology, notably the White Rabbit and the March Hare in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland; in the popular novel Watership Down, by Richard Adams (which has also been made into a movie) and in Beatrix Potter’s Peter Rabbit stories.

Urban legends

It was commonly believed that pregnancy tests were based on the idea that a rabbit would die if injected with a pregnant woman’s urine. This is not true. However, in the 1920s it was discovered that if the urine contained the hCG, a hormone found in the bodies of pregnant women, the rabbit would display ovarian changes. The rabbit would then be killed to have its ovaries inspected, but the death of the rabbit was not the indicator of the results. Later revisions of the test allowed technicians to inspect the ovaries without killing the animal. A similar test involved injecting Xenopus frogs to make them lay eggs, but animal assays for pregnancy have been made obsolete by faster, cheaper, and simpler modern methods.

See also

• Cecotrope
• Cuniculture
• Domestic rabbit
• Dwarf rabbits
• European Rabbit
• House rabbit
• Jackalope
• List of fictional rabbits
• Rabbit hopping
• Rabbits in Australia

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rabbit

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Rabbit

• American Rabbit Breeders Association an organization which promotes all phases of rabbit keeping.
• House Rabbit Society an activist organization which promotes keeping rabbits indoors.
• RabbitShows.com an informational site on the hobby of showing rabbits.
• The (mostly) silent language of rabbits
• World Rabbit Science Association an international rabbit-health science-based organization.

v • d • e Game animals and shooting in North America Game birds Bobwhite Quail · Chukar · Hungarian Partridge · Prairie Chicken · Mourning Dove · Ring-necked pheasant · Ptarmigan · Ruffed Grouse · Sharp-tailed Grouse  · Snipe (Common Snipe) · Spruce Grouse · Turkey · Woodcock Waterfowl Black Duck · Canada Goose · Canvasback · Gadwall · Greater Scaup · Lesser Scaup · Mallard · Northern Pintail · Redhead · Ross’s Goose · Snow Goose · Wood Duck Big game Bighorn Sheep · Black Bear · Razorback · Brown Bear · Bison (Buffalo) · Caribou · Cougar (Mountain Lion) · Elk · Moose · White-tailed deer · Gray wolf · Mountain goat · Mule Deer · Muskox · Dall Sheep · Polar Bear Other quarry American Alligator · Bobcat · Coyote · Fox Squirrel · Gray Fox · Gray Squirrel · Opossum · Rabbit · Raccoon · Red Fox · Snowshoe Hare See also Bear hunting · Big game hunting  · Deer hunting · Waterfowl hunting · Wolf hunting · Upland hunting

v • d • e Game animals and shooting in the United Kingdom Game birds: Common Pheasant · Grey Partridge · Red-legged Partridge · Red Grouse · Ptarmigan · Black Grouse1 · Eurasian Woodcock · Snipe Quarry species: Mallard · Teal · Wood Pigeon · Golden Plover · Canada Goose · Greylag Goose · Pink-footed Goose · Greater White-fronted Goose2 · Wigeon · Tufted Duck · Shoveler · Northern Pintail · Gadwall · Common Pochard · Common Goldeneye · Common Moorhen · Eurasian Coot Deer: Red Deer · Roe Deer · Fallow Deer · Sika Deer · Reeves’s Muntjac · Water Deer Other quarry: European Hare · Red Fox · European Rabbit See also: British Association for Shooting and Conservation · Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom · Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust · Countryside Alliance · Glorious Twelfth · Gamekeeper · Deer stalking Opponents: League Against Cruel Sports · Animal Aid Law: Game Act 1831 · Hunting Act 2004 1 Rarely shot due to declining numbers. 2 England and Wales only; protected Scotland.

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• Pet Rabbits – the challenge of keeping a Pet Rabbit (mypetkingdom.info)

Ferret
A domestic ferret
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Mustelidae Genus: Mustela Species: M. putorius Subspecies: M. p. furo
Trinomial name
Mustela putorius furo Linnaeus, 1758

The ferret is a domestic mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur, have an average length of approximately 20 inches (51 cm) including a 5 inch (13 cm) tail,^[1] weigh about 1.5–4 pounds (0.7–2 kg), and have a natural lifespan of 7 to 10 years.^[2][3][4]

Several other small, elongated carnivorous mammals belonging to the family Mustelidae (weasels) also have the word “ferret” in their common names, including an endangered species, the Black-footed Ferret. The ferret is a very close relative of the polecat, but it is as yet unclear whether it is a domesticated form of the European Polecat, the Steppe Polecat, or some hybrid of the two.

The history of the ferret’s domestication is uncertain, like that of most other domestic animals. It is very likely that ferrets have been domesticated for at least 2,500 years. They are still used for hunting rabbits in some parts of the world today, but increasingly they are being kept simply as pets.

Being so closely related to polecats, ferrets are quite easily able to hybridize with them, and this has occasionally resulted in feral colonies of ferret polecat hybrids that have been perceived to have caused damage to native fauna, perhaps most notably in New Zealand. As a result, some parts of the world have imposed restrictions on the keeping of ferrets.

History

Like most domestic animals, the original reason for ferrets’ domestication by human beings is uncertain but it may have involved hunting. It was most likely domesticated from the European polecat (Mustela putorius), though it is also possible that ferrets are descendants of the Steppe polecat (Mustela eversmannii), or some hybridization thereof.^[5] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggests that ferrets were domesticated around 2,500 years ago, although what appear to be ferret remains have been dated to 1500 BC.^[6] It has been claimed that the ancient Egyptians were the first to domesticate ferrets, but as no mummified remains of a ferret have yet been found, or any hieroglyph of a ferret, and no polecat now occurs wild in the area, that idea seems unlikely.^[7]

The Greek word ictis occurs in a play written by Aristophanes, The Acharnians, in 425 BC. Whether this was actually a reference to ferrets, polecats, or the similar Egyptian Mongoose is uncertain.^[8] The name “ferret” is derived from the Latin furittus, meaning “little thief”, a likely reference to the common ferret penchant for secreting away small items.^[9] Ferrets were probably used by the Romans for hunting.^[10][11]

Colonies of feral ferrets have established themselves in areas where there is no competition from similarly sized predators, such as in the Shetland Islands and in remote regions in New Zealand. Where ferrets coexist with polecats, hybridization is common. It has been claimed that New Zealand has the world’s largest feral population of ferret-polecat hybrids.^[12] In 1877, farmers in New Zealand demanded that ferrets be introduced into the country to control the rabbit population, which was also introduced by humans. Five ferrets were imported in 1879, and in 1882-1883, 32 shipments of ferrets were made from London, totaling 1,217 animals. Only 678 landed, and 198 were sent from Melbourne, Australia. On the voyage, the ferrets were mated with the European polecat, creating a number of hybrids that were capable of surviving in the wild. In 1884 and 1886, close to 4,000 ferrets and ferret hybrids, 3,099 weasels and 137 stoats were turned loose.^[13] Concern was raised that these animals would eventually prey on indigenous wildlife once rabbit populations dropped, and this is exactly what happened to New Zealand bird species which previously had no mammalian predators.

Ferreting

Ferret in a burrow

For hundreds of years, the main use of ferrets was for hunting, or ferreting. With their long, lean build and inquisitive nature, ferrets are very well equipped for getting down holes and chasing rodents and rabbits out of their burrows. Caesar Augustus sent ferrets or mongooses (named “viverrae” by Plinius) to the Balearic Islands to control the rabbit plagues in 6 BC.^[14] They are still used for hunting in some countries, including the United Kingdom, where rabbits are considered a plague species by farmers. However, the practice is illegal in several countries where it is feared that ferrets could unbalance the ecology.

In England, in 1390, a law was enacted restricting the use of ferrets for hunting:

… it is ordained that no manner of layman which hath not lands to the value of forty shillings a year (the equivalent of about £1,000 in today’s money^[15]) shall from henceforth keep any greyhound or other dog to hunt, nor shall he use ferrets, nets, heys, harepipes nor cords, nor other engines for to take or destroy deer, hares, nor conies, nor other gentlemen’s game, under pain of twelve months’ imprisonment.^[16]

Ferrets were first introduced into the New World in the 17th century, and were used extensively from 1860 until the start of World War II to protect grain stores in the American West from invading rodents.

Ferrets as pets

In the United States, ferrets were relatively rare pets until the 1980s. Dr. Wendy Winstead, a veterinarian, sold ferrets to celebrities including Dick Smothers and David Carradine while making television appearances with ferrets in the 1980s,^[17] writing books and promoting them until her death in the 1990s from cancer. A government study by the California State Bird and Mammal Conservation Program found that by 1996, approximately 800,000 or so domestic ferrets were likely being kept as pets in the United States.^[18]

Activity and nature

Ferrets spend 14 to 18 hours a day sleeping and are naturally crepuscular. They usually sleep in six hour sections. Though ferrets sleep more than most other domesticated animals, they are very active when awake and will seek to be released from their cage to get exercise and satisfy their abundant curiosity daily.

Ferret dragging off toy to hide

Ferrets are energetic, curious, interested in their surroundings, and often actively solicit play with humans, having a repertoire of behaviors both endearing and difficult for some human owners. Play for a ferret will often involve hide-and-seek games, or some form of predator and prey game in which either the human attempts to catch the ferret or the ferret to catch the human. They also have a strong nesting instinct and will repeatedly carry small objects or food to secluded locations. Ferrets will seemingly form attachments to certain objects and will repeatedly seek out and “steal” the same object and bring it to their hiding place.

A ferret in a War Dance jump

When ferrets are excited, they may perform a routine commonly referred to as the weasel war dance, a frenzied series of sideways hops. This is often accompanied by a soft clucking noise, commonly referred to as dooking. It is often an invitation to play or an expression of happy excitement and is not threatening. The ferret’s posture may become rigid with wide open jaws, momentary eye contact followed by thrashing or turning of the head from side to side, arching the back, piloerection (goosebumps), and hopping to the side or backwards while facing the intended playmate. This is often accompanied by an excited panting sound that may sound like a hiss. Often, this behavior will break into a game of chase, pounce and wrestle. Ferrets in war dances are very accident prone, often hopping into obstacles or tripping over their own feet.^[19][20]

Ferrets tend to nip as kits. Nipping is the act of biting in a playful manner representative of mock fighting and sparring; young ferrets are also more prone to chewing and teething, and have a tendency to bite harder. When on the receiving end of a play bite, a ferret will sometimes let out a high-pitched squeal or hiss to signify its annoyance or submission. Older ferrets tend to chew far less frequently and, when trained correctly, almost never nip a human hand or only do so very gently. However, ferrets that have been abused or are in extreme pain may bite a human, and are capable of strong bites which break through the skin.

As with cats, ferrets can use a litter box with training, but they are not always completely litter box trainable. Their instinct is to spread their waste in order to scent mark a wider foraging territory for themselves; thus, multiple litter boxes may be necessary, and all litter areas should be changed frequently.

Diet

Ferret food and treats

Ferrets are obligate carnivores.^[21] The natural diet of their wild ancestors consisted of whole small prey, i.e., meat, organs, bones, skin, feathers, and fur. Some ferret owners feed a meat-based diet consisting of whole prey like mice and rabbits along with raw meat like chicken, beef, veal, kangaroo and wallaby. This is preferred in Europe and Australia, and becoming increasingly popular in the United States due to concern over high carbohydrate levels in some processed ferret foods.^[22]

Alternatively, there are many commercial ferret food products. Some kitten foods can also be used, so long as they provide the high protein and fat content required by the ferret’s metabolism; high-quality commercial ferret foods are preferred to kitten foods by many ferret owners because the foods are geared more toward a ferret’s metabolism than to a cat’s. Most adult cat foods and kitten foods are unsuitable for ferrets however, because of their low protein content and high fiber. Ideally, a ferret food should contain a minimum of 32% meat based protein and 18% fat and a maximum 3% fiber.^[23] Low-quality pet foods often contain grain-based proteins, which ferrets cannot properly digest and result in lower nutrition leading to increased food intake and more waste.

Ferrets may have a fondness for sweets like raisins, bananas, peanut butter, and breakfast cereal. The high sugar content of such treats has been linked to ferret insulinoma and other diseases. Veterinarians recommend not feeding these foods to ferrets at all. Like many other carnivores, ferrets gradually lose the ability to digest lactose after they are weaned, and as a result, lactose-free milk is preferred.

Dangers to pet ferrets

Ferret curiosity often exceeds common sense in domestic environments and ferrets are good at getting into drains and holes in walls, doors, cupboards, or in or behind household appliances such as clothes dryers, stoves, ovens, and dishwashers, where they can be injured or killed by electrical wiring, fans, and other household item, or by drowning. Many chew items made of soft rubber, foam, or sponge, which present the risk of intestinal blockage and death if ingested. Serious and sometimes fatal injuries have resulted from ferrets chewing on electrical cords.

Ferret crawling under recliner

Recliners and fold-out sofas are a leading cause of accidental death in ferrets.^[24] Ferrets will often climb inside the springs and can be injured or killed once the chair is put into a reclined position. Clothes dryer vents often become escape routes to the outdoors. Unlike dogs and cats, many ferrets display little homing instinct and do not thrive as strays. Wandering ferrets run the risk of being injured or killed by passing vehicles, neighborhood animals, or local wildlife: their curious nature also leads them to place themselves in situations where they will confront and try to play with larger animals that may be dangerous to the ferret.

Ferret at play

A ferret’s long spine can be injured by rough handling: in addition, the small size and speedy nature makes it easy for a ferret to be stepped on.

Due to speculation on the possible effects of the photoperiod effect on the ferret’s adrenal gland, some owners prefer to house their pets outdoors in sheds, and not indoors.^[25]

Ferret “gardening” a plant

During mosquito and tick season, ferrets are susceptible to the diseases carried by these parasites. Ticks can attach themselves and begin to draw blood. When the tick gets full, it regurgitates some blood and tick saliva back into the ferret, which is how Lyme and other diseases can be transmitted. Ordinarily, the regurgitation happens between five to 24 hours after the tick attaches. Mosquitoes may also carry heart worms and the West Nile virus. Fleas can cause extreme skin irritation and can be intermediate hosts for tapeworms, one of which may kill a ferret because of their small size. Similarly, the venom of a bee, wasp or spider is much more serious for a ferret than for a larger mammal. Ferrets are prey for hawks and large snakes.

Ferrets and children

Ferrets can make good pets for some children, but usually do not make good pets for very young children. Important considerations include assessing potential danger to a human child by a pet ferret, and potential danger to a pet ferret by a human child, either deliberately or by neglect. Ferrets are capable of delivering a bite almost as strong as a domestic cat. Like all other domesticated animals, they should never be left unsupervised near infants or very young children. There have been rare cases where ferrets have severely injured babies but nearly all such incidents involved neglect, abuse, or roughhousing that the ferret likely perceived as an attack, and some of the animals involved were ferret-polecat hybrid crosses.^[26] Given that young children and ferrets can be both excitable and prone to rough play, interaction between ferrets and children must always be closely supervised for the protection of both. With regard to the danger of potential pet ferret attacks as contrasted to attacks from other pet species, statistics would imply that the danger is probably overstated. In the United States, a government study by the California Department of Health Services (Ferrets are illegal as pets in California ^[27]) on national pet attack statistics found 452 reported incidents of ferret bites during the ten year period 1978–87.^[28][29] By comparison, pet dogs accounted for an estimated 585,000 injuries that required medical attention in the year 1986 alone,^[30] with the total number of pet dogs in the United States in 1996 estimated at 55,000,000^[30] and the total number of pet ferrets in the United States in 1996 estimated at 800,000.^[18] Adjusting for the proportionate ratio of dogs to ferrets in the United States of 68 to 1, dog bites occurred 5 times more often than ferret bites.

Other uses of ferrets

Ferrets have been used to run wires and cables through large conduits. Event organizers in London used ferrets to run TV and sound cables for both the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales to Lady Diana Spencer, and for the “Party in the Park” concert held in Greenwich Park on Millennium Eve.^[31] One ferret, Freddie, was even registered as an electrician’s assistant with the New Zealand Electrical Workers Union.^[32]

Because they share many anatomical and physiological features with humans, ferrets are extensively used as experimental subjects in biomedical research, in fields such as virology, reproductive physiology, anatomy, endocrinology and neuroscience.

Ferret biology and health concerns

Ferret after a shower

Ferrets do not require frequent bathing, which may remove natural oils in the ferrets coat that prevent dry skin. However, most ferrets are not averse to water. Ferrets also need their nails clipped about once a month, and usually shed twice a year in the spring and fall.

Like many other carnivores, ferrets have scent glands near their anuses, the secretions from which are used in scent marking. It has been reported that ferrets can recognize individuals from these anal gland secretions, as well as the sex of unfamiliar individuals.^[33] Ferrets may also use urine marking for sex and individual recognitions.^[34]

As with skunks, ferrets can release their anal gland secretions when startled or scared, but the smell dissipates rapidly. Most pet ferrets in the US are sold descented, with their anal glands removed. In many other parts of the world, including the UK and other European countries, descenting is considered an unnecessary mutilation.

Unneutered male

Males, if not neutered, are extremely musky. It is considered preferable to delay neutering until sexual maturity has been reached, at approximately six to eight months old, after the full descent of the testicles. Neutering the male will reduce the smell to almost nothing. The same applies for females, but spaying them is also important for their own health. Unless they are going to be used for breeding purposes, female ferrets will go into extended heat and a female that will not mate, without medical intervention, can die of aplastic anemia. It is possible to use a vasectomised male to take a female out of heat.

Many domestic ferrets are known to suffer from several distinct health problems. Among the most common are cancers affecting the adrenal glands, pancreas, and lymphatic system. Certain health problems have been linked to ferrets being neutered before sexual maturity was reached, and because of this some owners now choose to use implants instead of having the ferret neutered too early. Some owners even choose not to have their ferret neutered at all but use longer working implants instead. Certain colors of ferret may also carry a genetic defect known as Waardenburg syndrome.

Foot Rot

A common ailment which is fatal in ferrets is foot rot (cage rot). Foot rot is a form of fungal infection which attacks the feet and is sometimes found to affect the tail. It initially appears as a small, yellow, scab-like infection. If untreated, it can cover the feet. In worse cases, almost the entire body. Foot rot is normally caused by poor cage hygiene, ie. feces accumulation.

Adrenal disease

Ferret with adrenal disease

Adrenal disease, a growth of the adrenal glands that can be either hyperplasia or cancer, is most often diagnosed by signs like unusual hair loss, increased aggression, constant grooming of owner or other ferrets as well as themselves, difficulty urinating (caused by an enlarged prostate) or defecating, or agitation when urinating, and (in the case of females) an enlarged vulva. Signs of an enlarged prostate should be considered an emergency; even if the growth is benign, it can still cause a hormonal imbalance which can have devastating effects on the ferret’s health.

Treatment options include surgery to excise the affected glands, melatonin implants, which treat the symptoms but not the disease itself, and/or hormone therapy. The causes of adrenal disease are as yet uncertain, but speculated triggers include unnatural light cycles, diets based around processed ferret foods, and prepubescent neutering. It has also been suggested that there may be a hereditary component to adrenal disease.^[35]

Adrenal disease is usually detected during the spring or fall, as it affects the hormones that make the fur grow. When affected ferrets shed their winter coat, the fur does not grow back. The hair loss pattern is usually very specific for adrenal disease. It begins at the base of the tail and then continues up the back. Ferrets treated for adrenal disease may suffer temporary but severe hair loss as their bodies recover.

Insulinoma

Ferrets may suffer from insulinoma, a cancer of the pancreas. The growth of cancerous nodules on the lobes of the pancreas sometimes, but not always, leads to an increase in the production of insulin, which regulates the rate at which the ferret’s body metabolizes blood glucose. Too much insulin will cause blood sugar to drop, resulting in lethargy, seizures, and ultimately death. Symptoms of an insulinoma attack include episodes of lethargy, drooling, pawing or foaming at the mouth, high pitched screams, staring “blankly” into space, and seizures.

Like adrenal cancer, the exact cause of insulinoma is unknown. It is speculated that the diets of domestic ferrets are too far removed from the natural diets of their polecat ancestors, and include too much sugar or simple carbohydrates.

Treatment for insulinoma may include surgical excision of the cancerous lobes, pharmaceutical treatment with steroids that suppress the production of insulin, supplemental changes in diet (most often poultry-based baby food), or a combination thereof. Unfortunately, the growth of the tumors cannot always be completely stopped, and the ferret will sometimes suffer a recurrence of symptoms. In an insulinoma attack, a temporary remedy to stabilize the ferret is any kind of a sugary syrup, such as corn syrup or honey.

Lymphoma

Lymphoma/lymphosarcoma is the most common malignancy in ferrets. Ferret lymphosarcoma occurs in two forms — juvenile lymphosarcoma, a fast-growing type that affects ferrets younger than two years, and adult lymphosarcoma, a slower growing form that affects ferrets four to seven years old.

In juvenile ferret lymphosarcoma, large, immature lymphocytes (lymphoblasts) rapidly invade the thymus or the organs of the abdominal cavity, particularly the liver and spleen. In adult ferret lymphosarcoma, the lymph nodes in the limbs and abdominal cavity become swollen early on due to invasion by small, mature lymphocytes. Invasion of organs, such as the liver, kidney, lungs, and spleen, occurs later on, and the disease may be far advanced before symptoms are noticeable.

As in humans, ferret lymphosarcoma can be treated surgically, with radiation therapy, chemotherapy or a combination thereof. The long-term prognosis is rarely bright, however, and this treatment is intended to improve quality of life with the disease.

Viral diseases

Epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE)

ECE, a viral disease that first appeared in the northeastern US in 1994, is an inflammation of the mucous membranes in the intestine. The disease manifests itself as severe diarrhea (often of a bright green color), loss of appetite, and severe weight loss. The virus can be passed via fluids and indirectly between humans. Although it was often fatal when first discovered, ECE is less of a threat today, with the right supportive care, that usually includes hospitalization with intravenous fluids. The virus is especially threatening to older ferrets and requires immediate attention.

Aleutian disease virus (ADV)

Aleutian Disease Virus (ADV) is a parvovirus discovered among mink in the Aleutian Islands in the early 20th century. In ferrets, the virus affects the immune system (causing it to produce non-neutralizing antibodies) and many internal organs, particularly the kidneys. There is no cure or vaccine for the disease, and ferrets may carry the virus for months or years without any external symptoms. As a result, some ferret organizations and shelters recommend that owners test their pets for the virus regularly, separating them from other ferrets if they test positive.

Canine distemper

Canine distemper (CD) is an extremely contagious virus that is almost always fatal. Being strict indoor pets does not necessarily protect ferrets, as owners may bring the virus home on their clothes or their shoes. The only protection against the virus is vaccination, but that is not without controversy as there have been reports, particularly from the USA, of ferrets going into anaphylactic shock after being vaccinated against CD.

Influenza virus isolation using ferrets

Ferrets have served as a good experimental animal models in the study of influenza virus. Smith, Andrews, Laidlaw (1933) inoculated ferrets intra-nasally with human naso-pharyngeal washes, which produced a form of influenza that spread to other cage mates. The human influenza virus (Influenza type A) was transmitted from an infected ferret to a junior investigator, from whom it was subsequently re-isolated.

Waardenburg-like coloring

Ferrets with a white stripe on their face or a fully white head, primarily blazes, badgers, and pandas, almost certainly carry a congenital defect which shares some similarities to Waardenburg syndrome. This causes, among other things, a cranial deformation in the womb which broadens the skull, white face markings, and also partial or total deafness. It is estimated as many as 75% of ferrets with these Waardenburg-like colorings are deaf. Beyond that, the cranial deformation also causes a higher instance of stillborn ferret kits, and occasionally cleft palates. Because of this, many breeders will not breed Waardenburg-patterned ferrets.

Dental Health

A ferret with white healthy teeth and pink gums

Dental Health is a very important part of any ferret’s health, and should not be neglected.

Ferrets have four types of teeth (the number includes maxillary(upper) and mandibular(lower) teeth)

• Twelve small teeth (only a couple of millimeters) located between the canines in the front of the mouth. These are known as the incisors and are used for grooming.
• Four Canines used for killing prey.
• Twelve Premolar teeth that the ferret uses to chew food, and are located at the sides of the mouth, directly behind the canines. The ferret being a carnivore uses these teeth to cut flesh, using them as scissors, cutting the meat into digestible chunks.
• Six Molars (Two on top and four on the bottom) at the far back of the mouth are used to crush food.

Tartar

Dental calculus (tartar) is a hard substance formed on the teeth from the mineralization of plaque.

Dental tartar primarily comes from wet food which get stuck to the teeth for extended periods of time.^[36] The best way to avoid tartar is to feed the ferret raw meat, bones and preferably whole prey. The biomechanics of consuming meat and bones will keep the teeth clean.^[37]

Tartar, left to itself may lead to gingivitis which in turn can lead to a dental abscess, bone loss, infections which may spread bacteria through the bloodstream to internal organs and lead to death if not treated. (Tartar on the tooth itself is not dangerous, it becomes a problem when the tartar closes in on the gumline and starts to irritate the gums.)

Tartar can be removed either mechanical or by ultrasound at a veterinarian (this usually involves anesthesia), a small toothbrush can also be used as a preventive measure if one is unable to feed the animal with raw meat.^[38]

Prevention is better than treatment, and tartar can be prevented by feeding raw food or giving specially made gelatin treats for ferrets.

Abrasion

Dental Abrasion or tooth wear is common in ferrets, and is caused by mechanical wear of the teeth.

Eating manufactured dry food (kibble) will erode (due to the hard and extremely dry kibble) the carnassial teeth of the ferret, the wear from the eating kibble can become significant with old age (after three to five years). If teeth are overly ground down, a ferret cannot use them as scissors to eat raw meat. Tooth erosion eventually affects a ferret’s ability to eat solid food.^[39]

Dental Abrasion can also be caused by excessive chewing on fabrics or toys, and cage biting. If the ferret engages in these activities a lot, it might be a sign of boredom, and more stimulating activities (such as play) should rectify the situation.

Terminology and coloring

A sable ferret, the most common color variation^[40]

A cinnamon “sprite” ferret

Male intact ferrets are called hobs; female intact ferrets are jills. A spayed female is a sprite, a neutered male is a gib, and a vasectomised male is known as a hoblet. Ferrets under one year old are known as kits. A group of ferrets is known as a business, or historically as a fesnyng [1].

Ferrets are various colors and patterns. Color refers to the color of the ferret’s guard hairs, undercoat, eyes, and nose. Pattern refers to the concentration and distribution of color on the body, mask, and nose, as well as white markings on the head or feet when present. The colors and patterns recognized by the American Ferret Association are as follows:^[41]

White ferrets were favored in the Middle Ages for the ease in seeing them in thick undergrowth. Leonardo da Vinci’s painting Lady with an Ermine is likely mislabeled; the animal is probably a ferret, not a stoat, for which “ermine” is an alternative name (the latter strictly applying only to the animal in its white winter coat). Similarly, the Ermine portrait of Queen Elizabeth the First shows her with her pet ferret, who has been decorated with painted-on heraldic ermine spots.

“The Ferreter’s Tapestry” is a fifteenth-century tapestry from Burgundy, France now part of the Burrell Collection housed in the Glasgow Museum and Art Galleries. It shows a group of peasants hunting rabbits with nets and white ferrets. This image was reproduced in Renaissance Dress In Italy 1400-1500, by Jacqueline Herald, Bell & Hyman — ISBN 0-391-02362-4

Gaston Phoebus’ Book Of The Hunt was written in approximately 1389 to explain how to hunt different kinds of animals, including how to use ferrets to hunt rabbits. Illustrations show how multicolored ferrets that are fitted with muzzles were used to chase rabbits out of their warrens and into waiting nets.

Ferrets featured in literature and culture

Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (January 2009)

Literature

• The Greek playwright Aristophanes referenced ferrets in his satire The Acharneans written around the year 425 BC, which includes the line: “What a happy man he’ll be that marries you and begets a set of Ferrets as good as you at farting in the Grey dawn!”^[42]
• The main character in the manga series Peach Fuzz is a ferret named Peach who has delusions of being a princess.
• The title character of the short story Sredni Vashtar by Edwardian satirist Saki is a “polecat-ferret” clandestinely kept by a young boy, who is liberated when the animal he worships as a god kills his overbearing guardian.
• The children’s book Zucchini by Barbara Dana is about a boy and his pet ferret.
• Richard Bach, author of Jonathan Livingston Seagull, wrote five books starring ferrets, the Ferret Chronicles series.
• In the fourth Harry Potter book and film, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the character Draco Malfoy is turned into an albino ferret.
• Ferrets are suspects in the mystery novel “Nothing to Fear but Ferrets” by Linda O. Johnston.
• In the Babymouse series, Babymouse’s Best friend is a ferret named Wilson.
• The children’s book Poggin Tails by Nick Cooper is a collection of short stories featuring Poggin, a polecat, and Fergal, a ferret.
• French poet Jean Follain wrote the 75-word poem “Death of the Ferret”.^[43]
• In the His Dark Materials trilogy, Lyra’s daemon Pantalaimon often assumes the form of a ferret.
• In the book Greywalkers, the main character, Harper Blaine, owns a ferret named Chaos, and she takes her to interviews with clients often.
• One main character of the manga series Strawberry Marshmallow, Matsuri Sakuragi owns a ferret named John.
• There are various ferret characters in Garry Kilworth’s Welkin Weasels series.
• The Redwall books (and TV series) by Brian Jacques frequently use ferrets, along with weasels, minks, ermine, and rats.
• The books by Tracy Ardella Longacre, Ferrets In Fourth Grade and A Very Merry Ferret Christmas, which tell the mischievous “tails” of Captain Nemo and Skipper, two pet ferrets of a fourth grader named Albert (Publish America).

Other

• The Magic: the Gathering card game features a storyline character named Joven, a thief who keeps trained ferrets to aid in his pilfering (presumably inspired by the Beastmaster series in which Dar uses ferrets for similar purposes). A card exists in the game for the ferrets, as well as one for Joven himself.

• The 1st Battalion, the Yorkshire Regiment of the British Armed Forces, keeps two ferrets, Imphal and Quebec, as its unofficial mascots, named after the battalion’s battle honors.^[44]

• In the Popotan game and anime series, there is a female white ferret called Unagi, that can transform into a humanoid hybrid. Unagi is indistinguishable from a normal human except for her white tail.

Regulation on ferrets as pets

• Australia – It is illegal to keep ferrets as pets in Queensland or the Northern Territory; in the ACT and Victoria a licence is required.
• Brazil – They are only allowed if they are given a microchip identification tag and sterilized.
• Iceland – Selling, distributing, breeding and keeping ferrets is illegal in Iceland.
• New Zealand – It has been illegal to sell, distribute or breed ferrets in New Zealand since 2002.
• Portugal – It is illegal to keep ferrets as pets in Portugal. Ferrets can only be used for hunting purposes and can only be kept with a government permit.
• United States – Ferrets were once banned in many US states, but most of these laws were rescinded in the 1980s and 90s as they became popular pets. Ferrets are still illegal in California under Fish and Game Code Section 2118^[45] and the California Code of Regulations.^[46] Additionally, “Ferrets are strictly prohibited as pets under Hawaii law because they are potential carriers of the rabies virus”;^[47] the territory of Puerto Rico has a similar law.^[48] Ferrets are restricted by individual cities, such as, Washington, DC and New York City.^[48] They are also prohibited on many military bases.^[48] A permit to own a ferret is needed in other areas, including Rhode Island.^[49] Illinois and Georgia do not require a permit to merely possess a ferret, but a permit is required to breed ferrets.^[50][51] It was once illegal to own ferrets in Dallas, Texas,^[52] but the current Dallas City Code for Animals includes regulations for the vaccination of ferrets.^[53] Pet ferrets are legal in Wisconsin, but an import permit from the state department of agriculture is required to bring one into the state.^[54]
• Japan – It is legal to keep ferrets as pets in Japan. In Hokkaido prefecture, ferrets must be registered with local government.^[55] In other prefectures, no restrictions apply.

Travel regulations

Airline policies

Most airlines require advance booking for ferret travel, and may levy additional fees. Requirements concerning pet carrier size, weight, and construction may vary from airline to airline.

Train policies

Import laws

Australia

Ferrets cannot be imported into Australia. A report drafted in August 2000 seems to be the only effort made to date to change the situation.^[69]

Canada

Ferrets brought from anywhere except the US require a Permit to Import from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Animal Health Office. Ferrets from the US require only a vaccination certificate signed by a veterinarian. Ferrets under three months old are not subject to any restrictions for importation.^[70]

European Union

As of July 2004, dogs, cats, and ferrets can travel freely within the European Union under the PETS travel scheme. To cross a border within the EU, ferrets require at minimum an EU PETS passport and an identification microchip (though some countries will accept a tattoo instead). Vaccinations are required; most countries require a rabies vaccine, and some require a distemper vaccine and treatment for ticks and fleas 24 to 48 hours before entry. PETS travel information is available from any EU veterinarian or on government websites.

Japan

Although previously pet ferrets were allowed to be brought into Japan, that is no longer the case. Individual pet ferrets cannot be brought into Japan without proper documents. However, licensed breeders such as Canadian Farms, PVF and Marshall’s have a special agreement which still allows the import of ferrets from those companies.

United Kingdom

The UK accepts ferrets under the EU’s PETS travel scheme. Ferrets must be microchipped, vaccinated against rabies, and documented. They must be treated for ticks and tapeworms 24 to 48 hours before entry. They must also arrive via an authorized route. Ferrets arriving from outside the EU may be subject to a six-month quarantine.^[71]

References

Notes