Hamster Fossil range: Middle Miocene–Recent
Syrian Hamster
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Subphylum:	Vertebrata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Rodentia
Suborder:	Myomorpha
Superfamily:	Muroidea
Family:	Cricetidae
Subfamily:	Cricetinae Fischer de Waldheim, 1817
Genera
Mesocricetus Phodopus Cricetus Cricetulus Allocricetulus Cansumys Tscherskia

Hamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 25 species, classified in six or seven genera.^[1]

Hamsters are crepuscular. In the wild, they burrow underground in the daylight to avoid being caught by predators. Their diet contains a variety of foods, including dried food, berries, nuts, fresh fruits and vegetables. In the wild they will eat any wheat, nuts and small bits of fruit and vegetables that they might find lying around on the ground, and will occasionally eat small insects such as small fruit flies, crickets, and meal worms. They have elongated fur-lined pouches on both sides of their heads that extend to their shoulders, which they stuff full of food to be stored, brought back to the colony or to be eaten later.

Although the Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) was first described scientifically in 1839, it was not until 1930 that researchers were able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters.^[2] Pet Syrian hamsters are descended from hamsters first found and captured in Syria by zoologist Israel Aharoni.^[3]

Hamster behaviour can vary depending on their environment, genetics, and interaction with people. Because they are easy to breed in captivity, hamsters are often used as lab animals in more economically developed countries. Hamsters have also become established as popular small house pets.^[2]

[edit] Etymology of name

The name hamster derives from the German Hamster, which itself comes from earlier Old High German hamustro. Possibly related to Old Russian choměstrǔ, which is either a blend of the root of Russian khomiak “hamster” and a Baltic word (cf. Lithuanian staras “hamster”)^[4] or of Persian origin (cf. Av hamaēstar “oppressor”)^[5]

[edit] Characteristics

Hamsters are stout-bodied, with tails shorter than body length, and have small furry ears, short stocky legs, and wide feet. Their thick, silky fur, which can be long or short, can be black, gray, honey, white, brown, yellow, or red depending on the species, or a mix of any of those colors.

Roborovski hamster

Two species of hamsters belonging to the genus Phodopus (Phodopus campbelli, Campbell’s Dwarf Hamster, and Phodopus sungorus, the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster) and also two of the species of the genus Cricetulus, (Cricetulus barabensis, the Chinese Striped Hamster, and Cricetulus griseus, the Chinese Dwarf Hamster) have a dark stripe down the head to tail. The species of genus Phodopus are the smallest, with bodies 5.5 to 10.5 cm (about 2 to 4 inches) long; the largest is the common hamster (Cricetus cricetus), measuring up to 34 cm (about 13.5 inches) long, not including a short tail of up to 6 cm (2-1/4 inches). The Angora hamster, also known as the long-haired or Teddy Bear hamster, which is a type of the Syrian Hamster is the second largest hamster breed, measuring up to 18 cm (about 7 inches) long.^[2]

Hamsters have poor eyesight; they are nearsighted and colorblind. However, they have an acute sense of smell and can hear extremely well. Hamsters can use their sense of smell to detect gender, locate food, and detect pheremones. They are also particularly sensitive to high-pitched noises and can hear and communicate in the ultrasonic range.^[3]

The tail is sometimes difficult to see; usually it is not very long (about 1/6th the length of their body) with exception of the Chinese dwarf hamster whose tail is the same length as the body. On a long haired hamster it is barely visible. Hamsters are very flexible, and their bones are somewhat fragile. They are extremely susceptible to rapid temperature changes and drafts, as well as extreme heat or cold. Hamsters are hindgut fermenters and must eat their own feces in order to digest their food a second time. This practice is called coprophagy and is necessary for the hamster to obtain the proper nutrients from its food.^[1]

Hamsters are omnivorous. They eat most things, and although they should regularly be given a diet of normal hamster food, it is enjoyable for both the owner and the hamster to experiment with other things, such as vegetables and fruits (though these should be removed once they go rotten or bad) seeds and nuts. The majority of pet-store food and treats for hamsters are not appropriate.

One characteristic of rodents that is highly visible in hamsters is their sharp incisors. They have two pairs in the front of their mouths and these incisors never stop growing and thus must be regularly worn down. Hamsters carry food in their spacious cheek pouches to their underground storage chambers. When full, their cheeks can make their heads double (or even triple) in size.^[1] Hamsters in the Middle East have been known to hunt in packs to find insects for food.^[6]

[edit] Behavior

Golden hamster grooming

Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) are generally solitary and may fight to the death if put together, whereas some of dwarf hamster species may get along with others of the same species. Hamsters are primarily considered crepuscular because they live underground during most of the day, only leaving their burrows about an hour before sundown and then returning when it gets dark. At one point they were considered nocturnal because they are active all night. Some species have been observed to be more nocturnal than others.^[3] All hamsters are excellent diggers, constructing burrows with one or more entrances and with galleries that are connected to chambers for nesting, food storage, and other activities.^[1] They will also appropriate tunnels made by other mammals; the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus sungorus), for instance, uses paths and burrows of the pika. Although hamsters do not hibernate per se, they do “close down” a number of systems, such as breathing and heartbeat rate, for short periods of time. These periods of torpor can last up to seven to ten days. Hamsters are known to stockpile large amounts of food where they sleep, making it possible to leave pet hamsters alone for a few days without food.^[2]

[edit] Reproduction

A mother Syrian Hamster with pups under one week old.

Hamsters become fertile at different ages depending on their species, but this can be from one month to three months of age. The female’s reproductive life only lasts about 18 months, but male hamsters remain fertile much longer. Females are in heat approximately every four days, indicated by a reddening of genital areas.^[2]

Hamsters are seasonal breeders. Breeding season is from April to October in the northern hemisphere, with two to five litters of 1 to 13 young being born after a gestation period of 16 to 23 days.^[6] Gestation lasts 16 to 18 days for Syrian hamsters, 18 to 21 days for the Russian hamsters, 21 to 23 days for Chinese hamsters and 23 to 30 for Roborovski Hamsters. The average litter for Syrians is about 7, but can be as great as 24, which is the maximum number of pups that can be contained in the uterus. Campbell’s Dwarf Hamsters tend to have 4 to 8 in a litter but can have up to 14. Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamsters tend to have slightly smaller litters, as do Chinese and Roborovski hamsters.

Siberian hamsters form close, monogamous bonds with their mates. If separated, they may become very depressed. This happens especially in males. Males will become inactive, eat more, and even show some behavioural changes similar to some types of depression in humans. This can even cause obesity in the hamster.

Chinese hamster females are known for being aggressive toward the male if kept together for too long. In some cases, male Chinese hamsters can die after being attacked by the female. If breeding Chinese hamsters, it is recommended to separate the pair after mating or the hamsters will attack each other.

Golden hamster females are also very aggressive toward male hamsters and must be separated immediately after breeding in order to prevent an attack. Female hamsters are also particularly sensitive to disturbances while giving birth and may even eat her own young if she thinks they are in danger, although sometimes she is just carrying the pups in her cheek pouches.^[3]

Hamsters are born hairless and blind in a nest that the mother will have prepared in advance.^[2] After one week they begin to explore outside the nest. They are completely weaned after three weeks, or four for Roborovski Hamsters. Most breeders will sell the hamsters to shops when the hamsters are anywhere from three to nine weeks old.

[edit] Mating and longevity

Syrian hamsters typically live no more than two to three years in captivity, less than that in the wild. Russian Hamsters (Campbell’s and Winter White) live approximately 1.5 to 2 years in captivity, and Chinese Hamsters 2.5 to 3 years. The smaller Roborovski Hamster often lives to 2–3 years in captivity.^[1] Both Syrian and Russian hamsters mature quickly and can begin reproducing at a young age (4–5 weeks), whereas Chinese hamsters will usually begin reproducing at 2–3 months of age, and Roborovskis at 3–4 months of age.

Left to their own devices, hamsters will produce several litters a year with several pups in each litter. When seen from above, a sexually mature female hamster has a trim tail line; a male’s tail line bulges on both sides. This might not be very visible in all species. Male hamsters typically have very large testes in relation to their body size. Before sexual maturity occurs at about 4–6 weeks, it is more difficult to determine a young hamster’s sex. When examined, female hamsters have their anal and genital openings close together, whereas males have these two holes farther apart (the penis is usually withdrawn into the coat and thus appears as a hole or pink pimple).^[2]

It should also be noted that if a captive hamster is left for extended periods (3–4 weeks and more) with her litter, there is a high possibility that she will cannibalize the litter. It is therefore imperative that the litter be split up by the time the young can collect their own food and water.

[edit] Hamsters as pets

A Sable short-haired Syrian hamster

The best-known species of hamster is the Syrian or Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus), which is the type of hamster most commonly kept as a pet. It is also sometimes called a “fancy” hamster. Pet stores also have taken to calling them “honey bears”, “panda bears”, “black bears”, “European black bears”, “polar bears”, “teddy bears”, and “Dalmatian”, depending on their coloration. There are also several variations, including long-haired varieties that grow hair several centimeters long and often require special care. British zoologist Leonard Goodwin claimed that most hamsters kept in the United Kingdom were descended from the colony he introduced for medical research purposes during the Second World War.^[7]

A Russian dwarf hamster

Other hamsters that are kept as pets are the four species of “dwarf hamster“. Campbell’s Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus campbelli) is the most common of the four—they are also sometimes called “Russian Dwarfs”; however, many hamsters are from Russia, and so this ambiguous name does not distinguish them from other species appropriately. The coat of the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus sungorus) turns almost white during winter (when the hours of daylight decrease).^[2] The Roborovski Hamster (Phodopus roborovskii) is extremely small and fast, making it difficult to keep as a pet.^[1] The Chinese Hamster (Cricetulus griseus), although not technically a true “dwarf hamster”, is the only hamster with a prehensile tail (about 4 cm long)—most hamsters have very short, non-prehensile tails.

Many breeders also show their hamsters and so breed towards producing a good healthy show hamster with a view to keeping one or two themselves so quality and temperament are of vital importance when planning the breeding. Although breeders of show hamsters specialise in breeding show hamsters, there are also owners who have bred their pet hamsters. These may be the result of a planned or unplanned pregnancy but the hamsters have usually been cared for well and handled regularly, so make very suitable pets. Buying a hamster directly from a breeder means that there is the opportunity to see the parents and know the dates of birth.

[edit] Classification

Taxonomists generally disagree about the most appropriate placement of the subfamily Cricetinae within the superfamily Muroidea. Some place it in a family Cricetidae that also includes voles, lemmings, and New World rats and mice; others group all these into a large family called Muridae. Their evolutionary history is recorded by 15 extinct fossil genera and extends back 11.2 million to 16.4 million years to the Middle Miocene Epoch in Europe and North Africa; in Asia it extends 6 million to 11 million years. Four of the seven living genera include extinct species. One extinct hamster of Cricetus, for example, lived in North Africa during the Middle Miocene, but the only extant member of that genus is the common hamster of Eurasia.

• Subfamily Cricetinae
  • Genus Allocricetulus
    • Species A. curtatus—Mongolian Hamster
    • Species A. eversmanni—Kazakh Hamster, also called Eversmann’s Hamster
  • Genus Cansumys
    • Species C. canus—Gansu Hamster
  • Genus Cricetulus
    • Species C. alticola—Ladak Hamster
    • Species C. barabensis, including “C. pseudogriseus” and “C. obscurus“—Chinese Striped Hamster, also called Chinese Hamster; Striped Dwarf Hamster
    • Species C. griseus—Chinese (Dwarf) Hamster, also called Rat Hamster
    • Species C. kamensis—Tibetan Hamster
    • Species C. longicaudatus—Long-tailed Hamster
    • Species C. migratorius—Armenian Hamster, also called Migratory Grey Hamster; Grey Hamster; Grey Dwarf Hamster; Migratory Hamster
    • Species C. sokolovi—Sokolov’s Hamster
  • Genus Cricetus
    • Species C. cricetus—European Hamster, also called Common Hamster or Black-Bellied Field Hamster
    • Species C. nehringi—Rummanian Hamster
  • Genus Mesocricetus—Golden Hamsters
    • Species M. auratus—Syrian Hamster, also called the Golden Hamster or “Teddy Bear” hamster
    • Species M. brandti—Turkish hamster, also called Brandt‘s Hamster; Azerbaijani Hamster
    • Species M. newtoni—Romanian Hamster
    • Species M. raddei—Ciscaucasian Hamster
  • Genus Phodopus—Dwarf Hamsters
    • Species P. campbelli—Campbell’s Russian Dwarf Hamster
    • Species P. roborovskii—Roborovski Hamster, the smallest and fastest of the hamster species
    • Species P. sungorus—Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster
  • Genus Tscherskia
    • Species T. triton—Greater Long-tailed Hamster, also called Korean Hamster

[edit] Relationships among hamster species

Neumann et al. (2006) conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 12 of the above 17 species of hamster using DNA sequence from three genes: 12S rRNA, cytochrome b, and von Willebrand factor. They uncovered the following relationships:

Phodopus group

The genus Phodopus was found to represent the earliest split among hamsters. Their analysis included both species. The results of another study (Lebedev et al., 2003) may suggest that Cricetulus kamensis (and presumably the related C. alticola) might belong to either this Phodopus group or hold a similar basal position.

Mesocricetus group

The genus Mesocricetus also form a clade. Their analysis included all four species, with M. auratus and M. raddei forming one subclade and M. brandti and M. newtoni another.

Remaining genera

The remaining genera of hamsters formed a third major clade. Two of the three sampled species within Cricetulus represent the earliest split. This clade contains Cricetulus barabensis (and presumably the related C. sokolovi) and Cricetulus longicaudatus.

Miscellaneous

The remaining clade contains members of Allocricetulus, Tscherskia, Cricetus, and Cricetulus migratorius. Allocricetulus and C were sister taxa. Cricetulus migratorius was their next closest relative, and Tscherskia was basal.

[edit] Similar animals

Note that there are some rodents that are sometimes called “hamsters” that are not currently classified in the hamster subfamily Cricetinae. These include the Maned Hamster or Crested Hamster, which is really the Maned Rat (Lophiomys imhausi), although not nearly as marketable under that name. Others are the mouse-like hamsters (Calomyscus spp.), and the white-tailed rat (Mystromys albicaudatus).

[edit] See also

Wikinews has related news: Vietnam bans pet hamsters

• Chinchilla
• Gerbil
• Guinea pig
• Hamster racing
• Hamtaro
• Rat
• Tales of the Riverbank
• The Hampster Dance

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

[edit] Bibliography

• Lebedev, V. S., N. V. Ivanova, N. K. Pavlova, and A. B. Poltoraus. 2003. Molecular phylogeny of the Palearctic hamsters. In Proceedings of the International Conference Devoted to the 90th Anniversary of Prof. I. M. Gromov on Systematics, Phylogeny and Paleontology of Small Mammals (A. Averianov and N. Abramson eds.). St. Petersburg.
• Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. In Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds.). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
• Neumann, K., J. Michaux, V. Lebedev, N. Yigit, E. Colak, N. Ivanova, A. Poltoraus, A. Surov, G. Markov, S. Maak, S. Neumann, R. Gattermann. 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the Cricetinae subfamily based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA genes and the nuclear vWF gene. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, in press; Available online 17 February 2006.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cricetinae

Wikispecies has information related to: Cricetinae

Look up hamster in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• National Hamster Council (UK)

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The guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), also commonly called the cavy, is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia. Despite their common name, these animals are not pigs, nor do they come from Guinea. They originated in the Andes, and studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domesticated descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, or C. tschudii, and therefore do not exist naturally in the wild.^[1][2] The guinea pig plays an important role in the folk culture of many Indigenous South American groups, especially as a food source, but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies.^[3] Since the 1960s, efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America.^[4]

In Western societies, the guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century. Their docile nature, their responsiveness to handling and feeding, and the relative ease of caring for them, continue to make the guinea pig a popular pet. Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide, and many specialized breeds of guinea pig, with varying coat colors and compositions, are cultivated by breeders.

Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century. The animals were frequently used as a model organism in the 19th and 20th centuries, resulting in the epithet “guinea pig” for a test subject, but have since been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats. They are still used in research, primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes, tuberculosis, scurvy, and pregnancy complications.

[edit] History

The common guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America (present-day Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia),^[5] some thousands of years after the domestication of the South American camelids.^[6] Statues dating from ca. 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador.^[7] The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art.^[8] From ca. 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532, selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs, which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds.^[9] They continue to be a food source in the region; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal, which subsists off the family’s vegetable scraps.^[10] Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous; they are exchanged as gifts, used in customary social and religious ceremonies, and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors.^[11] They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, or curanderos, who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus.^[12] They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick, and are seen as a supernatural medium.^[13] Black guinea pigs are considered especially useful for diagnoses.^[14] The animal also may be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether the cure was effective.^[15] These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes, where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted.^[16]

Spanish, Dutch, and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe, where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty, including Queen Elizabeth I.^[5] The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547, in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola, the animal was likely introduced there by Spanish travelers.^[1] The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner.^[17] Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777; it is an amalgam of Pallas‘ generic designation (1766) and Linnaeus‘ specific conferral (1758).^[1]

[edit] Name

The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus, with porcellus being Latin for “little pig”. Cavia is New Latin; it is derived from cabiai, the animal’s name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana.^[18] Cabiai may be an adaptation of the Portuguese çavia (now savia), which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá, meaning rat.^[19] Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo (pl. cuyes, cuyos) in the Spanish of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.^[20] Ironically, breeders tend to use the more formal “cavy” to describe the animal, while in scientific and laboratory contexts it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial “guinea pig”.^[21]

How the animals came to be thought of as “pigs” is not clear. They are built somewhat like pigs, with large heads relative to their bodies, stout necks, and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs, and they also spend a large amount of time eating.^[22] They can survive for long periods in small quarters, like a ‘pig pen’, and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe.^[23]

The animal’s name carries porcine connotations in many European languages. The German word for them is Meerschweinchen, literally “little sea pig”, which has been translated into Polish as świnka morska, into Hungarian as tengerimalac and into Russian as морская свинка which can be translated to English as “sea pig”. This derives from nautical history: sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs, which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat. The French term is Cochon d’Inde (Indian pig) or cobaye; the Dutch call it Guinees biggetje (Guinean piglet) or cavia, (while in some Dutch dialects it is called Spaanse rat), and in Portuguese the guinea pig is variously referred to as cobaia, from the Tupi word via its Latinization, or as porquinho da Índia (little Indian pig). This is not universal; for example, the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias (little rabbit of India / the Indies).^[20] Equally peculiar, the Chinese refer to them as Holland pigs (荷蘭豬, hélánzhū).

The origin of “guinea” in “guinea pig” is harder to explain. One theory is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea, leading people to think they had originated there.^[21] “Guinea” was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far-off, unknown country, and so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal’s foreignness.^[24][25] Another theory suggests the “guinea” in the name is a corruption of “Guiana“, an area in South America, though the animals are not native to that region.^[24][26] A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin; this theory is untenable, because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663, and William Harvey used the term “Ginny-pig” as early as 1653.^[27] Others believe “guinea” may be an alteration of the word coney (rabbit); guinea pigs were referred to as “pig coneys” in Edward Topsell‘s 1607 treatise on quadrupeds.^[21]

[edit] Traits and environment

Two parti-colored Abyssinian guinea pigs

Guinea pigs are large for rodents, weighing between 700 and 1200 g (1.5–2.5 pounds), and measuring between 20 and 25 cm (8–10 inches) in length.^[28] They typically live an average of four to five years, but may live as long as eight years.^[29] According to the 2006 Guinness Book of Records the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years, 10.5 months.^[30]

In the 1990s, a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs, such as guinea pigs, chinchillas, and degus, are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals (similar to lagomorphs).^[31][32] Subsequent research using wider sampling has restored consensus among mammalian biologists that the current classification of rodents as monophyletic is justified.^[33][34]

[edit] Natural habitat

Cavia porcellus is not found naturally in the wild; it is likely descendant from some closely related species of cavies, such as Cavia aperea, Cavia fulgida, and Cavia tschudii, which are still commonly found in various regions of South America.^[1] Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century, such as Cavia anolaimae and Cavia guianae, may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild.^[9] Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of the cow. They are social, living in the wild in small groups which consist of several females (sows), a male (boar), and the young (which in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature are called pups). They move together in groups (herds) eating grass or other vegetation, and do not store food.^[35] While they do not burrow or build nests, they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals, as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation.^[35] They are crepuscular, tending to be most active during dawn and dusk, when it is harder for predators to spot them.^[36]

[edit] Domestic habitat

Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more; groups of sows, or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations. Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual guinea pigs, and testing of boars shows that their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females.^[37] Groups of boars may also get along, provided that their cage has enough space, they are introduced at an early age, and no females are present.^[38] Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts, and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between.^[36] Activity is scattered randomly over the 24 hours of the day; aside from avoidance of intense light, no regular circadian patterns are apparent.^[36]

This cat has accepted this pair of guinea pigs. The success of this type of interspecies interaction varies according to the individual animals involved

Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages, although some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs will dedicate entire rooms to their pets. Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used, although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot (ulcerative pododermatitis).^[39] “Cubes and Coroplast” (or C&C) style cages are now a common choice.^[40] Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material. Bedding made from Red Cedar^{[disambiguation needed]} and pine, both softwoods, was commonly used in the past, however these materials are now believed to contain harmful phenols (aromatic hydrocarbons) and oils.^[41] Safer beddings include those made from hardwoods (such as aspen), paper products, and corn cob materials are other alternatives.^[41] Guinea pigs tend to be messy within their cages; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them, and their urine sometimes crystallizes on cage surfaces, making it difficult to remove.^[42] After its cage has been cleaned, a guinea pig will typically urinate and drag the lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory.^[43] Male guinea pigs may also mark their territory in this way when they are taken out of their cages.

Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species. Cohousing of guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections,^[44] and such rodents may act aggressively toward the guinea pig.^[45] Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey, though some (such as dogs) can be trained to accept them.^[46] Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits. Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage.^[46][47] However, as lagomorphs, rabbits have different nutritional requirements, and so the two species cannot be fed the same food.^[48] Rabbits may also harbor diseases (such as the respiratory infections Bordetella and Pasteurella), to which guinea pigs are susceptible.^[49] Even the dwarf rabbit is much stronger than the guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury.^[50]

[edit] Behavior

Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food, and can accurately remember a learned path for months. Their strongest problem solving strategy is motion.^[51] While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles, they are poor climbers, and are not particularly agile. They startle extremely easily, and will either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid, darting motions when they sense danger.^[36] Larger groups of startled guinea pigs will “stampede”, running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators.^[52] When excited, guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air (known as “popcorning”), a movement analogous to the ferret’s war dance.^[53] They are also exceedingly good swimmers.^[54]

Guinea pigs “social groom”

Like many rodents, guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming, and they regularly self-groom.^[55] A milky-white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process.^[56] Groups of boars will often chew each other’s hair, but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group, rather than a social gesture.^[54] Dominance is also established through biting (especially of the ears), piloerection, aggressive noises, head thrusts, and leaping attacks.^[57] Non-sexual simulated mounting for dominance is also common among same-sex groups.

Guinea pig sight is not as good as a human, but they have a wider range of vision (about 340°)^[58] and see in partial color (dichromacy). They have well-developed senses of hearing, smell, and touch.^[59] Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species.^[60] Some sounds are:^[61][62]

• Wheek – A loud noise, the name of which is onomatopoeic, also known as a Whistle. An expression of general excitement, it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to feeding. It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are running. If a guinea pig is lost, it may wheek for assistance. listen (help·info)
• Bubbling or Purring – This sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself, such as when being petted or held. They may also make this sound when grooming, crawling around to investigate a new place, or when given food. listen (help·info)
• Rumbling – This sound is normally related to dominance within a group, though it can also come as a response being scared or angry. In these cases the rumble often sounds higher and the body vibrates shortly. While courting, a male usually purrs deeply, swaying and circling the female^[63] in a behavior called “rumblestrutting”. A low rumble while walking away reluctantly shows passive resistance. listen (help·info)
• Chutting and Whining – These are sounds made in pursuit situations, by the pursuer and pursuee, respectively. listen (help·info)
• Chattering – This sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth, and is generally a sign of warning. Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound. A more relaxed type of gnashing often means the guinea pig wants a treat that is somewhere nearby but out of reach.^{[original research?]}
• Squealing or Shrieking – A high-pitched sound of discontent, in response to pain or danger. listen (help·info)
• Chirping – This less-common sound, likened to bird song, seems to be related to stress, or when a baby guinea pig wants to be fed. Very rarely, the chirping will last for several minutes. listen (help·info)

[edit] Breeding

Pregnant sow one week before delivering three pups

The guinea pig is able to breed year-round, with birth peaks usually coming in the spring; as many as five litters can be produced per year.^[9] The gestation period lasts from 59–72 days, with an average of 63–68 days.^[43] Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups, pregnant females may become large and eggplant-shaped, although the change in size and shape varies. Unlike the offspring of most other rodents, which are altricial at birth, newborn pups are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight;^[54] they are immediately mobile, and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle. Litters yield 1–6 pups, with an average of three;^[29] the largest recorded litter size is 17.^[64]

In smaller litters, difficulties may occur during labour due to over-sized pups. Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth, but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development, lack of access to the mother’s milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns.^[65] Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating.^[66]

Male and female guinea pigs do not differ in external appearance apart from general size. The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes. Female genitals are distinguished by a Y-shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap; while the male genitals may look similar with the penis and anus forming a like shape, the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair.^[67] The male’s testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling.

Guinea pig pup at eight hours old

Males reach sexual maturity at 3–5 weeks; females can be fertile as early as four weeks and can carry litters before they are adults.^[68] Females that have never given birth commonly develop irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, after six months of age.^[43] If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will not widen sufficiently; this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth.^[69] Females can become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it is not healthy for a female to be thus constantly pregnant.^[70]

Toxemia of pregnancy is common and kills many pregnant females. Signs of toxemia include anorexia, lack of energy, excessive salivation, a sweet or fruity breath odor due to ketones, and seizures in advanced cases.^[71] Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates.^[72] Other serious complications of pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcaemia, and mastitis.^[73]

[edit] Diet

A silver agouti guinea pig eating grass

Grass is the guinea pig’s natural diet. Their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter, and grow continuously throughout the animal’s life.^[74] Most grass-eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract; while guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents, they must also supplement their diet by coprophagy, the eating of their own feces.^[75] However, they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately, but produce special soft pellets, called cecotropes, which recycle B vitamins, fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion.^[76] The cecotropes (or caecal pellets) are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese.^[48] They share this behaviour with rabbits. In geriatric boars or sows (the condition is rarer in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak. This creates a condition known as anal impaction, which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes, though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass.^[77] The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces.

Guinea pigs benefit from feeding on fresh grass hay, such as timothy hay, in addition to food pellets which are often based from timothy. Alfalfa is also a popular food choice; most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it,^[78] though there exists some controversy over the feeding of alfalfa to adult guinea pigs. Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that, as a legume rather than a grass hay, alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity, as well as bladder stones due to excess calcium, in any but pregnant and very young guinea pigs.^[79][80] However, published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a source for replenishment of protein, amino acids, and fiber.^[81][82]

Like humans, but unlike most other mammals, guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy. Guinea pigs require about 10 mg (0.15 gr) of vitamin C daily (20 mg (0.31 gr) if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as broccoli, apple, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or through dietary supplements.^[83] Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and hydrogen ions; adequate amounts of vitamins E, A, and D are also necessary.^[84] Imbalanced diets have been associated with muscular dystrophy, metastatic calcification, difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies, and teeth problems.^[85] Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables, having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume, and their habits are difficult to change after maturity.^[86] They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet; they may stop eating and starve rather than accepting new food types.^[54] A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present.^[87] Because guinea pigs’ teeth grow constantly, they routinely gnaw, lest their teeth become too large for their mouth, a common problem in rodents.^[40] Guinea pigs will also chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber.

A number of plants are poisonous to guinea pigs, including bracken, bryony, buttercup, charlock, deadly nightshade, foxglove, hellebore, hemlock, Lily of the Valley, mayweed^{[disambiguation needed]}, monkshood, privet, ragwort, rhubarb, speedwell, toadflax^{[disambiguation needed]}, and wild celery.^[88] Additionally, any plant which grows from a bulb (e.g., tulip and onion) is normally considered poisonous.^[88]

[edit] Health

A parti-colored guinea pig suffering from Torticollis, or wry neck

Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections^{[disambiguation needed]}, diarrhea, scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, typically characterized by sluggishness), abscesses due to infection (often in the neck, due to hay embedded in the throat, or from external scratches), and infections by lice, mites, or fungus.^[89]

Mange mites (Trixacarus caviae) are a common cause of hair loss, and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching, unusually aggressive behavior when touched (due to pain), and, in some instances, seizures.^[90] Guinea pigs may also suffer from “running lice” (Gliricola porcelli), a small white insect which can be seen moving through the hair; the eggs of these lice, which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair, are sometimes referred to as “static lice”. Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts.^[91]

Foreign bodies, especially small pieces of hay or straw, can become lodged in the eyes of guinea pigs, resulting in excessive blinking, tearing, and in some cases an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer.^[92] Hay or straw dust can also cause sneezing. While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically, frequent sneezing may be a symptom of pneumonia, especially in response to atmospheric changes. Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal.^[93]

Because the guinea pig has a stout, compact body, the animal more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat.^[94] Its normal body temperature is 101–104 °F (38–40 °C),^[95] and so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to the human’s, about 65–75 °F (18–24 °C).^[94] Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 90 °F (32 °C) have been linked to hyperthermia and death, especially among pregnant sows.^[94] Guinea pigs are not well suited to environments that feature wind or frequent drafts,^[96] and respond poorly to extremes of humidity outside of the range of 30–70%.^[97]

Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness, and many times health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages. Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics, including penicillin, which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and in some cases, death.^[98]

Similar to the inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animal (such as hip dysplasia in canines), a number of genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported. Most commonly, the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system.^[99] Other genetic disorders include “waltzing disease” (deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles), palsy, and tremor conditions.^[100]

[edit] Pets

A guinea pig being held

If handled correctly early in their life, guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried, and seldom bite or scratch.^[54] They are timid explorers, and rarely attempt to escape from their cages, even when an opportunity presents itself.^[47] Guinea pigs who become familiar with their owner will whistle on the owner’s approach; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors, where their food is most commonly stored.

Guinea pigs should be kept in pairs or, preferably groups, unless there is a specific medical condition that requires isolation. Lone guinea pigs are more likely to suffer from stress and depression^[101]; for this reason, it is illegal in Sweden to sell a lone guinea pig to a buyer who does not have any other guinea pigs^[102]. It is a common misconception that male guinea pigs cannot be kept in groups; male guinea pigs can make excellent companions, especially when introduced from a young age and, generally, aggression would only occur if there was limited space or resources or a higher ratio of males to females. Guinea pig compatibility relies more heavily on personality than on gender^[103].

Domesticated guinea pigs come in many breeds, which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America. These varieties vary in hair and color composition. The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair (also known as the American), which have a short, smooth coat, and the Abyssinian, whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks, or rosettes. Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie (or Silkie), both straight longhair breeds, and the Texel, a curly longhair.

Cavy Clubs and Associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide. The American Cavy Breeders Association, an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders’ Association, is the governing body in the United States and Canada.^[104] The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in the United Kingdom. Similar organizations exist in Australia (Australian National Cavy Council)^[105] and New Zealand (New Zealand Cavy Club).^[106] Each club publishes its own Standard of Perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing.

[edit] Cultural and media influence

A lilac, orange and white Satin Peruvian guinea pig (show-length coat)

As a result of their widespread popularity in human domestic life, and especially because of their popularity in households with children, guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media. Some noted appearances of the animal in literature are The Fairy Caravan, a novel by Beatrix Potter,^[107] and Michael Bond‘s Olga da Polga series for children,^[108] both of which feature guinea pigs as the central protagonist. Another appearance is in The Magician’s Nephew by C. S. Lewis: in the first (chronologically) of his The Chronicles of Narnia series, a guinea pig is the first creature to travel to the Wood between the Worlds.^[109] The short story Pigs Is Pigs by Ellis Parker Butler is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence; two guinea pigs held at a train station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are “pigs” for the purpose of determining freight charges.^[110] Butler’s story, in turn, inspired the Star Trek: The Original Series episode “The Trouble with Tribbles“, written by David Gerrold.^[111] In the Golden Hamster Saga books, there are two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso who are modern-day thespians (named after Enrico Caruso) who serve as secondary characters, and often irritate the main character, Freddy Auratus who strongly dislikes their acting antics.

Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television. In the TV movie Shredderman Rules, the main character and the main character’s crush both have guinea pigs which both play a minor part in the plot. A guinea pig named Rodney, voiced by Chris Rock, was a prominent character in the 1998 film Dr. Dolittle and Linny the Guinea pig is a co-star on Nick Jr.‘s Wonder Pets. Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s, notably for Egg Banking plc,^[112] Snapple, and Blockbuster Video.^[113] The Blockbuster campaign is considered by some guinea pig advocates to have been a factor in the rise of caging guinea pigs and rabbits together.^[50] In the South Park season 12 episode “Pandemic 2: The Startling“,giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes, are portrayed as rampaging over the entire Earth^[114] The Walt Disney Pictures movie G-Force, released in the United States on July 24, 2009, features a group of highly intelligent guinea pigs trained as operatives of the U.S. government. A highly popular video game, based on the movie, was also released.

[edit] Scientific research

A guinea pig being examined by a veterinary medical officer for general health and pulmonary condition

The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century, when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures.^[115] In 1780, Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter, a device used to measure heat production. The heat from the guinea pig’s respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter, showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, similar to a candle burning.^[116] Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century, through the experiments of Louis Pasteur, Émile Roux, and Robert Koch.^[117] Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space-flight several times, first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9, 1961 – with a successful recovery.^[118] China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers.^[119]

Guinea pig being injected to test a chemical for its carcinogenic properties

In English, the term guinea pig is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation, or any experiment or test in modern times. This dates back to the early 20th century; the Oxford English Dictionary notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913.^[120] In 1933, Consumers Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, extending the metaphor to consumer society.^[121] The book became a national bestseller in the United States, thus further popularizing the term, and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement.^[122] The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel The Guinea Pigs by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism.^[123]

Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century; about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s,^[124] but that total decreased to about 375,000 by the mid-1990s.^[54] As of 2007, they constitute approximately 2% of the current total of laboratory animals.^[124] In the past they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions, or anaphylaxis.^[125] Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation.^[125] Since the middle 20th century, they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats. This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents, although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study, especially regarding coat color.^[100][126] In 2004, the U.S.’s National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig.^[127]

The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases.^[125] Common uses included identification of brucellosis, Chagas disease, cholera, diphtheria, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and various strains of typhus.^[125] They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis, since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria.^[124] Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which, like humans, cannot synthesize vitamin C but must obtain it from their diet, they are ideal for researching scurvy.^[124] From the accidental discovery in 1907 that scurvy could be induced in guinea pigs, to their use to prove the chemical structure of the “ascorbutic factor” in 1932, the guinea pig model proved a crucial part of vitamin C research.^[128][129]

Complement, an important component for serology, was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig.^[124] Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation,^[130] and are a suitable species for the generation of anti-insulin antibodies.^[131] Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals, the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation, a role usually played by growth hormone.^[132] Additionally, guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and, because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia, of pre-eclampsia in human females.^[66]

Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains. Aside from the common American or English stock, the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin-Hartley; these English strains are albino, although pigmented strains are also available.^[133] Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research, such as immune system molecular biology. Of the inbred strains that have been created, the two that are still used with any frequency are, following Sewall Wright’s designations, “Strain 2″ and “Strain 13″.^[100][133]

Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s, particularly for dermatological studies. A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979.^[134] An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978, and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982.^[135] Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds, and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as “skinny pigs“.

[edit] As food

Two Peruvian dishes of cuy meat

Guinea pigs (called cuy, cuye, curí) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes. Traditionally, the animal was usually reserved for ceremonial meals by indigenous people in the Andean highlands, but since the 1960s it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people.^[136] It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia, particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador (mainly in the Sierra) and Colombia.^[137] Because guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly, they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals, such as pigs and cows;^[138] moreover, they can be raised in an urban environment. Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income, and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large-scale municipal fairs.^[139] Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol, and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken.^[4][140] The animal may be served fried (chactado or frito), broiled (asado), or roasted (al horno), and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee.^[141] Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy, a soup dish.^[141] Pachamanca or huatia, a process similar to barbecueing, is also popular, and is usually served with corn beer (chicha) in traditional settings.^[141]

Cuy being raised at home in the traditional Andean fashion

Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco shows Christ and the twelve disciples dining on guinea pig.^[4] The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru. A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy (“collecting the cuys”) is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru, and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima.^[142] It is a syncretistic event, combining elements of Catholicism and pre-Columbian religious practices, and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints.^[142] The exact form that the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town; in some localities, a sirvinti (servant) is appointed to go from door to door, collecting donations of guinea pigs, while in others, guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight.^[142] Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities, and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures.^[142] In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador, guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo, which is a community meal, and the Octava, where castillos (greased poles) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars, from which several guinea pigs may be hung.^[143] The Peruvian town of Churin has an annual festival which involves dressing guinea pigs in elaborate costumes for a competition.^[144]

Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat, and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve cuy as a delicacy.^[145] Peruvian research universities, especially La Molina National Agrarian University, began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger-sized guinea pigs.^[146] Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America, in order to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable.^[147] In the 1990s and 2000s, the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe, Japan, and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of these countries in northern South America.^[4] Efforts have also been made to introduce guinea pig husbandry in developing countries in West Africa.^[138] Nevertheless, as a food source they are still generally considered taboo in other countries in America and Europe; in reality television, guinea pig meat has been consumed as an exotic dish by such Western celebrity chefs as Andrew Zimmern (for his show Bizarre Foods) and Anthony Bourdain in No Reservations.

[edit] See also

Mammals portal

• British Cavy Council
• Peter Gurney
• Save the Newchurch Guinea Pigs

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Look up guinea pig in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cavia porcellus

Wikispecies has information related to: Cavia porcellus

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Animal Care/Guinea pig

• ACBA – American Cavy Breeders’ Association
• Laboratory Guinea Pig
• Domestic Guinea Pig Genome

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Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. There are seven different genera in the family classified as rabbits, including the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), Cottontail rabbit (genus Sylvilagus; 13 species), and the Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi, endangered species on Amami Ōshima, Japan). There are many other species of rabbit, and these, along with pikas and hares, make up the order Lagomorpha.

[edit] Location and habitat

Outdoor entrance to a rabbit burrow

The rabbit lives in many areas around the world. Rabbits live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit lives in underground burrows, or rabbit holes. A group of burrows is called a warren.^[1] Meadows, woods, forests, thickets, and grasslands are areas in which rabbits live.^[1] They also inhabit deserts and wetlands. More than half the world’s rabbit population resides in North America.^[1] They also live in Europe, India, Sumatra, Japan, and parts of Africa. The European rabbit has been introduced to many places around the world.^[2]

[edit] Characteristics and anatomy

The rabbit’s long ears, which can be more than 10 cm (4 in) long, are probably an adaptation for detecting predators. They have large, powerful hind legs. Each foot has five toes, with one greatly reduced in size. They are digitigrade animals; they move around on the tips of their toes. Wild rabbits do not differ much in their body proportions or stance, with full, egg-shaped bodies. Their size can range anywhere from 20 cm (8 in) in length and 0.4 kg in weight to 50 cm (20 in) and more than 2 kg. The fur is most commonly long and soft, with colors such as shades of brown, gray, and buff. The tail is a little plume of brownish fur (white on top for cottontails).^[2]

Because the rabbit’s epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, the rabbit is an obligate nasal breather. Rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents, with which they are often mistaken.^[3] Carl Linnaeus originally grouped rabbits and rodents under the class Glires; later, they were separated as the predominant opinion was that many of their similarities were a result of convergent evolution. However, recent DNA analysis and the discovery of a common ancestor has supported the view that they share a common lineage, and thus rabbits and rodents are now often referred to together as members of the superclass Glires. ^[4]

Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach, and it, along with the large intestine, makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit’s digestive tract.^[5] The unique musculature of the caecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope.Cecotropes, sometimes called “night feces”, are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit’s health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the adicic stomach for digestion in the intestines.. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.^[6]

[edit] Natural behavior

Outdoor rabbit (side view)

Rabbits, being prey animals, tend to be exploratory in new spaces and if confronted by a potential threat, tend to freeze and observe. Rabbits have a remarkably wide field of vision, and a good deal of it is devoted to overhead scanning. Both indoors and outdoors, rabbits will scan for overhead threats.^[7] They survive by burrowing, hopping away from danger in a zig- zag motion, and delivering powerful kicks with their hind legs. Their teeth are strong to allow them to eat and bite if necessary to get out of struggle.^[8]

[edit] Reproduction

A litter of rabbit kits (baby rabbits)

An abandoned baby rabbit

A nest containing baby rabbits

Rabbits have a very fast reproductive rate. The breeding season for most rabbits lasts 9 months, from February to October. Normal gestation is about 30 days. The average size of the litter varies but is usually between 4 and 12 babies, with larger breeds having larger litters. A kit (baby rabbit) can be weaned at about 4 to 5 weeks of age. This means in one season a single female rabbit can produce as many as 800 children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. A doe is ready to breed at about 6 months of age, and a buck at about 7 months. Courtship and mating is very brief, lasting only 30 to 40 seconds. Courtship behavior involves licking, sniffing, and following the doe. Spraying urine is also a common sexual behavior. Female rabbits are reflex ovulators. The female rabbit also may or may not lose clumps of hair during the gestation period.

Ovulation begins 10 hours after mating. After mating, the female will make a nest or borough, and line the nest with fur from the dewlap, flanks, and belly. This behavior also exposes the nipples enabling her to better nurse the kits. Kits are altricial, which means they’re born blind, naked, and helpless. Passive immunity (immunity acquired by transfer of antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes from another animal) is acquired by kits prior to birth via placental transfer. At about 10 to 11 days after birth, the baby rabbit’s eyes will open, and they will start eating on their own at around 14 days old.

Although born naked, a soft baby coat of hair forms within a few days. At the age of 5 to 6 weeks, the soft baby coat is replaced with a pre-adult coat. At about 6 to 8 months of age, this intermediate coat is replaced by the final adult coat, which is shed twice a year thereafter. Due to the nutritious nature of rabbit milk, kits only need to be nursed for a few minutes once or twice a day.^[9]

[edit] Diet and eating habits

Rabbits are herbivores who feed by grazing on grass, forbs, and leafy weeds. In consequence, their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by passing two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are immediately eaten. Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing the cud as do cows and many other herbivores) to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients.^[10]

Rabbits graze heavily and rapidly for roughly the first half hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. In this time, the rabbit will also excrete many hard fecal pellets, being waste pellets that will not be reingested. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals. While out of the burrow, the rabbit will occasionally reingest its soft, partially digested pellets; this is rarely observed, since the pellets are reingested as they are produced. Reingestion is most common within the burrow between 8 o’clock in the morning and 5 o’clock in the evening, being carried out intermittently within that period.

Hard pellets are made up of hay-like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk, being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets. These are only released outside the burrow and are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted. They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls.

The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. These pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat.^[2] This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.^[11]

Rabbits are incapable of vomiting due to the physiology of their digestive system.^[12]

[edit] Rabbit diseases

[edit] Differences from hares

Rabbits are clearly distinguished from hares in that rabbits are altricial, having young that are born blind and hairless. In contrast, hares are generally born with hair and are able to see (precocial). All rabbits except the cottontail rabbit live underground in burrows or warrens, while hares live in simple nests above the ground (as does the cottontail rabbit), and usually do not live in groups. Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with longer ears, and have black markings on their fur. Hares have not been domesticated, while European rabbits are often kept as house pets. In gardens, they are typically kept in hutches — small, wooden, house-like boxes — that protect the rabbits from the environment and predators.

[edit] As pets

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Pet rabbits kept indoors are referred to as house rabbits. House rabbits typically have an indoor pen or cage and a rabbit-safe place to run and exercise, such as an exercise pen, living room or family room. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and some can learn to come when called. Domestic rabbits that do not live indoors can also often serve as companions for their owners, typically living in an easily accessible hutch outside the home. Some pet rabbits live in outside hutches during the day for the benefit of fresh air and natural daylight and are brought inside at night.

Whether indoor or outdoor, pet rabbits’ pens are often equipped with enrichment activities such as shelves, tunnels, balls, and other toys. Pet rabbits are often provided additional space in which to get exercise, simulating the open space a rabbit would traverse in the wild. Exercise pens or lawn pens are often used to provide a safe place for rabbits to run.

A pet rabbit’s diet typically consists of unlimited timothy-grass, a small amount of pellets, and a small portion of fresh vegetables. Rabbits are social animals. Rabbits as pets can find their companionship with a variety of creatures, including humans, other rabbits, guinea pigs, and sometimes even cats and dogs. Animal welfare organisations such as the House Rabbit Society recommend that rabbits do not make good pets for small children because children generally do not know how to stay quiet, calm, and gentle around rabbits. As prey animals, rabbits are alert, timid creatures that startle easily. They have fragile bones, especially in their backs, that require support on the belly and bottom when picked up. Children 7 years old and older usually have the maturity required to care for a rabbit.^[13]

[edit] As food and clothing

Rabbit meat sold commercially

An Australian ‘Rabbiter’ circa 1900

An old wooden cart, piled with rabbit skins, in New South Wales, Australia

Leporids such as European rabbits and hares are a food meat in Europe, South America, North America, some parts of the Middle East, and China, among other places.

Rabbit is still commonly sold in UK butchers and markets, although not frequently in supermarkets. At farmers markets and the famous Borough Market in London, rabbits will be displayed dead and hanging unbutchered in the traditional style next to braces of pheasant and other small game. Rabbit meat was once commonly sold in Sydney, Australia, the sellers of which giving the name to the rugby league team the South Sydney Rabbitohs, but quickly became unpopular after the disease myxomatosis was introduced in an attempt to wipe out the feral rabbit population (see also Rabbits in Australia).

When used for food, rabbits are both hunted and bred for meat. Snares or guns along with dogs are usually employed when catching wild rabbits for food. In many regions, rabbits are also bred for meat, a practice called cuniculture. Rabbits can then be killed by hitting the back of their heads, a practice from which the term rabbit punch is derived. Rabbit meat is a source of high quality protein.^[14] It can be used in most ways chicken meat is used. In fact, well-known chef Mark Bittman says that domesticated rabbit tastes like chicken because both are blank palettes upon which any desired flavors can be layered.^[15] Rabbit meat is leaner than beef, pork, and chicken meat. Rabbit products are generally labeled in three ways, the first being Fryer. This is a young rabbit between 4.5 and 5 pounds and up to 9 weeks in age.^[16] This type of meat is tender and fine grained. The next product is a Roaster; they are usually over 5 pounds and up to 8 months in age. The flesh is firm and coarse grained and less tender than a fryer. Then there are giblets which include the liver and heart. One of the most common types of rabbit to be bred for meat is New Zealand white rabbit.

There are several health issues associated with the use of rabbits for meat, one of which is Tularemia or Rabbit Fever.^[17] Another is so-called rabbit starvation, due most likely to deficiency of essential fatty acids in rabbit meat. Rabbits are a common food item of large pythons, such as Burmese pythons and reticulated pythons, both in the wild and in captivity.

Rabbit pelts are sometimes used for clothing and accessories, such as scarves or hats. Angora rabbits are bread for their long, fine hair, which can be sheared and harvested like sheep wool. Rabbits are very good producers of manure; additionally, their urine, being high in nitrogen, makes lemon trees very productive. Their milk may also be of great medicinal or nutritional benefit due to its high protein content.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Environmental problems

When introduced into a new area, rabbits can overpopulate rapidly, becoming a nuisance, as on this university campus

European Rabbit in Shropshire, England, infected with the Myxomatosis disease, which is caused by the Myxoma virus

Rabbits have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans. As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed, wild rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture. Gassing, barriers (fences), shooting, snaring, and ferreting have been used to control rabbit populations, but the most effective measures are diseases such as myxomatosis (myxo or mixi, colloquially) and calicivirus. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus. The virus was developed in Spain, and is beneficial to rabbit farmers. If it were to make its way into wild populations in areas such as Australia, it could create a population boom, as those diseases are the most serious threats to rabbit survival. Rabbits in Australia are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them.^[18]

[edit] In culture and literature

Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. The species’ role as a prey animal also lends itself as a symbol of innocence, another Easter connotation.

Additionally, rabbits are often used as symbols of playful sexuality, which also relates to the human perception of innocence, as well as its reputation as a prolific breeder.

[edit] Folklore and mythology

The rabbit often appears in folklore as the trickster archetype, as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies.

• In Aztec mythology, a pantheon of four hundred rabbit gods known as Centzon Totochtin, led by Ometotchtli or Two Rabbit, represented fertility, parties, and drunkenness.
• In Central Africa, “Kalulu” the rabbit is widely known as a tricky character, getting the better of bargains.^{[citation needed]}
• In Chinese literature, rabbits accompany Chang’e on the Moon. Also associated with the Chinese New Year (or Lunar New Year), rabbits are also one of the twelve celestial animals in the Chinese Zodiac for the Chinese calendar. It is interesting to note that the Vietnamese lunar new year replaced the rabbit with a cat in their calendar, as rabbits did not inhabit Vietnam.
• A rabbit’s foot is carried as an amulet believed to bring good luck. This is found in many parts of the world, and with the earliest use being in Europe around 600 B.C.^[19]
• In Japanese tradition, rabbits live on the Moon where they make mochi, the popular snack of mashed sticky rice. This comes from interpreting the pattern of dark patches on the moon as a rabbit standing on tiptoes on the left pounding on an usu, a Japanese mortar (See also: Moon rabbit).
• In Jewish folklore, rabbits (shfanim שפנים) are associated with cowardice, a usage still current in contemporary Israeli spoken Hebrew (similar to English colloquial use of “chicken” to denote cowardice).
• A Korean myth similar to the Japanese counterpart presents rabbits living on the moon making rice cakes (Tteok in Korean).
• In Native American Ojibwe mythology, Nanabozho, or Great Rabbit, is an important deity related to the creation of the world.
• A Vietnamese mythological story portrays the rabbit of innocence and youthfulness. The Gods of the myth are shown to be hunting and killing rabbits to show off their power.
• “Taushan Tepe” (Rabbit Hill) was the Turkish name of Kabile, Bulgaria.

On the Isle of Portland in Dorset, UK, the rabbit is said to be unlucky and speaking its name can cause upset with older residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the quarrying industry, where piles of extracted stone (not fit for sale) were built into tall rough walls (to save space) directly behind the working quarry face; the rabbit’s natural tendency to burrow would weaken these “walls” and cause collapse, often resulting in injuries or even death. The name rabbit is often substituted with words such as “long ears” or “underground mutton”, so as not to have to say the actual word and bring bad luck to oneself. It is said that a public house (on the island) can be cleared of people by calling out the word rabbit and while this was very true in the past, it has gradually become more fable than fact over the past 50 years.

[edit] Other fictional rabbits

The rabbit as trickster appears in American popular culture; for example the Br’er Rabbit character from African-American folktales and Disney animation; and the Warner Bros. cartoon character Bugs Bunny.

Anthropomorphized rabbits have appeared in a host of works of film, literature, and technology, notably the White Rabbit and the March Hare in Lewis Carroll‘s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland; in the popular novels Watership Down, by Richard Adams (which has also been made into a movie) and Rabbit Hill by Robert Lawson, as well as in Beatrix Potter‘s Peter Rabbit stories.

[edit] Urban legends

It was commonly believed that pregnancy tests were based on the idea that a rabbit would die if injected with a pregnant woman’s urine. This is not true. However, in the 1920s it was discovered that if the urine contained the hCG, a hormone found in the bodies of pregnant women, the rabbit would display ovarian changes. The rabbit would then be killed to have its ovaries inspected, but the death of the rabbit was not the indicator of the results. Later revisions of the test allowed technicians to inspect the ovaries without killing the animal. A similar test involved injecting Xenopus frogs to make them lay eggs, but animal tests for pregnancy have been made obsolete by faster, cheaper, and simpler modern methods.

[edit] Classifications

Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus)

Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the order Rodentia (rodent) until 1912, when they were moved into a new order Lagomorpha. This order also includes pikas.

Order Lagomorpha

• Family Leporidae
  • Genus Pentalagus
    • Amami Rabbit/Ryūkyū Rabbit, Pentalagus furnessi
  • Genus Bunolagus
    • Bushman Rabbit, Bunolagus monticularis
  • Genus Nesolagus
    • Sumatran Striped Rabbit, Nesolagus netscheri
    • Annamite Striped Rabbit, Nesolagus timminsi
  • Genus Romerolagus
    • Volcano Rabbit, Romerolagus diazi
  • Genus Brachylagus
    • Pygmy Rabbit, Brachylagus idahoensis
  • Genus Sylvilagus
    • Forest Rabbit, Sylvilagus brasiliensis
    • Dice’s Cottontail, Sylvilagus dicei
    • Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus bachmani
    • San Jose Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus mansuetus
    • Swamp Rabbit, Sylvilagus aquaticus
    • Marsh Rabbit, Sylvilagus palustris
    • Eastern Cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus
    • New England Cottontail, Sylvilagus transitionalis
    • Mountain Cottontail, Sylvilagus nuttallii
    • Desert Cottontail, Sylvilagus audubonii
    • Omilteme Cottontail, Sylvilagus insonus
    • Mexican Cottontail, Sylvilagus cunicularis
    • Tres Marias Rabbit, Sylvilagus graysoni
  • Genus Oryctolagus
    • European Rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus
  • Genus Poelagus
    • Central African Rabbit, Poelagus marjorita
  • Three other genera in family, regarded as hares, not rabbits

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rabbit breeds

[edit] See also

• Cecotrope
• Cuniculture
• Domestic rabbit
• Dwarf rabbits
• European Rabbit
• House rabbit
• Jackalope
• List of fictional rabbits
• List of animal names
• Rabbit hopping
• Rabbits in Australia
• Three hares

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Windling, Terri. The Symbolism of Rabbits and Hares.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rabbit

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Rabbit

• American Rabbit Breeders Association an organization which promotes all phases of rabbit keeping.
• House Rabbit Society an activist organization which promotes keeping rabbits indoors.
• RabbitShows.com an informational site on the hobby of showing rabbits.
• The (mostly) silent language of rabbits
• World Rabbit Science Association an international rabbit-health science-based organization.

The ferret is a domestic mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur, have an average length of 20 inches (51 cm) including a 5 inch (13 cm) tail, weigh about 1.5–4 pounds (0.7–2 kg), and have a natural lifespan of 7 to 10 years.^[1]

Several other small, elongated carnivorous mammals belonging to the family Mustelidae (weasels) also have the word ferret in their common names, including an endangered species, the Black-footed Ferret. The ferret is a very close relative of the polecat, but it is as yet unclear whether it is a domesticated form of the European Polecat, the Steppe Polecat, or some hybrid of the two.

The history of the ferret’s domestication is uncertain, like that of most other domestic animals, but it is likely that ferrets have been domesticated for at least 2,500 years. They are still used for hunting rabbits in some parts of the world today, but increasingly they are being kept simply as pets.

Being so closely related to polecats, ferrets are quite easily able to hybridize with them, and this has occasionally resulted in feral colonies of ferret polecat hybrids that have been perceived to have caused damage to native fauna, perhaps most notably in New Zealand. As a result, some parts of the world have imposed restrictions on the keeping of ferrets.

[edit] Biology

[edit] Characteristics

As described by the Oaklands Zoo,

Ferrets have a long and slender body covered with brown, black, white, or mixed fur … Average length is 20 inches including a 5 inch tail. They weigh 1.5 to 4 pounds with males substantially larger than females … Gestation is 42 days, litters are usually 3 to 7 young, but sometimes more. Females may have two to three litters annually. Young are weaned after 3 to 6 weeks and become independent at 3 months. Sexual maturity may come at 6 months. Average life span is 8 years.^[2]

—Conservation and Education:Oaklands Zoo

[edit] Behavior

Ferrets are crepuscular, which means they spend 14–18 hours a day asleep and are most active around the hours of dawn and dusk.^[3] Unlike their polecat ancestors, which are solitary animals, ferrets will live happily in social groups. They are territorial, like to burrow and prefer to sleep in an enclosed area.^[4]

Like many other carnivores, ferrets have scent glands near their anus, the secretions from which are used in scent marking. It has been reported that ferrets can recognize individuals from these anal gland secretions, as well as the sex of unfamiliar individuals.^[5] Ferrets may also use urine marking for sex and individual recognition.^[6]

As with skunks, ferrets can release their anal gland secretions when startled or scared, but the smell is much less potent and dissipates rapidly. Most pet ferrets in the US are sold de-scented, with their anal glands removed. In many other parts of the world, including the UK and other European countries, de-scenting is considered an unnecessary mutilation.

When excited, they may perform a routine commonly referred to as the weasel war dance, a frenzied series of sideways hops and bumping into things. This is often accompanied by a soft clucking noise, commonly referred to as dooking.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Diet

Ferrets are obligate carnivores.^[7] The natural diet of their wild ancestors consisted of whole small prey, i.e., meat, organs, bones, skin, feathers, and fur.^[8]

[edit] Dentition

Ferret dentition

Ferrets have four types of teeth (the number includes maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth)

• Twelve small teeth (only a couple of millimeters) located between the canines in the front of the mouth. These are known as the incisors and are used for grooming.
• Four canines used for killing prey.
• Twelve premolar teeth that the ferret uses to chew food, and are located at the sides of the mouth, directly behind the canines. The ferret uses these teeth to cut through flesh, using them in a scissors action to cut the meat into digestible chunks.
• Six molars (two on top and four on the bottom) at the far back of the mouth are used to crush food.

[edit] Health

Ferrets are known to suffer from several distinct health problems. Among the most common are cancers affecting the adrenal glands, pancreas, and lymphatic system. Viral diseases include canine distemper and influenza. Health problems can occur in unspayed females when not being used for breeding. Certain health problems have also been linked to ferrets being neutered before reaching sexual maturity. Certain colors of ferret may also carry a genetic defect known as Waardenburg syndrome. Similar to domestic cats, ferrets can also suffer from hairballs and dental problems.

[edit] History of domestication

In common with most domestic animals, the original reason for ferrets’ being domesticated by human beings is uncertain but it may have involved hunting. It was most likely domesticated from the European polecat (Mustela putorius), though it is also possible that ferrets are descendants of the Steppe polecat (Mustela eversmannii), or some hybridization thereof.^[9] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggests that ferrets were domesticated around 2,500 years ago, although what appear to be ferret remains have been dated to 1500 BC.^[10] It has been claimed that the ancient Egyptians were the first to domesticate ferrets, but as no mummified remains of a ferret have yet been found, or any hieroglyph of a ferret, and no polecat now occurs wild in the area, that idea seems unlikely.^[11]

The Greek word ictis occurs in a play written by Aristophanes, The Acharnians, in 425 BC. Whether this was a reference to ferrets, polecats, or the similar Egyptian Mongoose is uncertain.^[12] The name “ferret” is derived from the Latin furittus, meaning “little thief”, a likely reference to the common ferret penchant for secreting away small items.^[13] Ferrets were probably used by the Romans for hunting.^[14][15]

Colonies of feral ferrets have established themselves in areas where there is no competition from similarly sized predators, such as in the Shetland Islands and in remote regions in New Zealand. Where ferrets coexist with polecats, hybridization is common. It has been claimed that New Zealand has the world’s largest feral population of ferret-polecat hybrids.^[16] In 1877, farmers in New Zealand demanded that ferrets be introduced into the country to control the rabbit population, which was also introduced by humans. Five ferrets were imported in 1879, and in 1882–1883, 32 shipments of ferrets were made from London, totaling 1,217 animals. Only 678 landed, and 198 were sent from Melbourne, Australia. On the voyage, the ferrets were mated with the European polecat, creating a number of hybrids that were capable of surviving in the wild. In 1884 and 1886, close to 4,000 ferrets and ferret hybrids, 3,099 weasels and 137 stoats were turned loose.^[17] Concern was raised that these animals would eventually prey on indigenous wildlife once rabbit populations dropped, and this is exactly what happened to New Zealand bird species which previously had no mammalian predators.

[edit] Ferreting

Ferret in a burrow

For millennia, the main use of ferrets was for hunting, or ferreting. With their long, lean build, and inquisitive nature, ferrets are very well equipped for getting down holes and chasing rodents and rabbits out of their burrows. Caesar Augustus sent ferrets or mongooses (named “viverrae” by Plinius) to the Balearic Islands to control the rabbit plagues in 6 BC ().^[18] They are still used for hunting in some countries, including the United Kingdom, where rabbits are considered a plague species by farmers. However, the practice is illegal in several countries where it is feared that ferrets could unbalance the ecology. In 2009 in Finland, where ferreting was previously unknown, the city of Helsinki began to use ferrets to restrict the city’s rabbit population to a manageable level. Ferreting was chosen as a method because in populated areas it is considered to be safer and less ecologically damaging than shooting the rabbits.

In England, in 1390, a law was enacted restricting the use of ferrets for hunting to only the relatively wealthy:

… it is ordained that no manner of layman which hath not lands to the value of forty shillings a year [the equivalent of about £1,000 in today's money^[19]] shall from henceforth keep any greyhound or other dog to hunt, nor shall he use ferrets, nets, heys, harepipes nor cords, nor other engines for to take or destroy deer, hares, nor conies, nor other gentlemen’s game, under pain of twelve months’ imprisonment.^[20]

Ferrets were first introduced into the New World in the 17th century, and were used extensively from 1860 until the start of World War II to protect grain stores in the American West from invading rodents.

[edit] Ferrets as pets

In the United States, ferrets were relatively rare pets until the 1980s. A government study by the California State Bird and Mammal Conservation Program found that by 1996, approximately 800,000 or so domestic ferrets were likely being kept as pets in the United States.^[21]

[edit] Other uses of ferrets

Ferrets are an important experimental animal model for human influenza,^[22][23] and have been used to study the 2009 H1N1 (swine flu) virus.^[24] Smith, Andrews, Laidlaw (1933) inoculated ferrets intra-nasally with human naso-pharyngeal washes, which produced a form of influenza that spread to other cage mates. The human influenza virus (Influenza type A) was transmitted from an infected ferret to a junior investigator, from whom it was subsequently re-isolated.

Ferrets have been used to run wires and cables through large conduits. Event organizers in London used ferrets to run TV and sound cables for both the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales to Lady Diana Spencer, and for the “Party in the Park” concert held in Greenwich Park on Millennium Eve.^[25] One ferret, Freddie, was even registered as an electrician’s assistant with the New Zealand Electrical Workers Union.^[26]

Because they share many anatomical and physiological features with humans, ferrets are extensively used as experimental subjects in biomedical research, in fields such as virology, reproductive physiology, anatomy, endocrinology, and neuroscience.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Terminology and coloring

Typical ferret coloration, known as a sable or polecat-colored ferret

Male ferrets are called hobs; female ferrets are jills. A spayed female is a sprite, a neutered male is a gib, and a vasectomised male is known as a hoblet. Ferrets under one year old are known as kits. A group of ferrets is known as a business, or historically as a fesnyng.^[27]

Most ferrets are either albinos, with white fur and pink eyes, or display the typical dark masked coloration of their wild polecat ancestors. In recent years however, fancy breeders have produced a wide variety of colors and patterns. Color refers to the color of the ferret’s guard hairs, undercoat, eyes, and nose; pattern refers to the concentration and distribution of color on the body, mask, and nose, as well as white markings on the head or feet when present. Some national organizations, such as the American Ferret Association, have attempted to classify these variations in their showing standards.^[28]

There are four basic colors. The Sable (including chocolate and dark), Albino, Dark Eyed White (DEW), and the silver. All the other colors of a ferret fall right into one of these four categories.

[edit] Waardenburg-like coloring

Ferrets with a white stripe on their face or a fully white head, primarily blazes, badgers, and pandas, almost certainly carry a congenital defect which shares some similarities to Waardenburg syndrome. This causes, among other things, a cranial deformation in the womb which broadens the skull, white face markings, and also partial or total deafness. It is estimated as many as 75% of ferrets with these Waardenburg-like colorings are deaf. Beyond that, the cranial deformation also causes a higher instance of stillborn ferret kits, and occasionally cleft palates. ^{[citation needed]}

White ferrets were favored in the Middle Ages for the ease in seeing them in thick undergrowth. Leonardo da Vinci‘s painting Lady with an Ermine is likely mislabeled; the animal is probably a ferret, not a stoat, (for which “ermine” is an alternative name for the animal in its white winter coat). Similarly, the Ermine portrait of Queen Elizabeth the First shows her with her pet ferret, who has been decorated with painted-on heraldic ermine spots.

“The Ferreter’s Tapestry” is a 15th-century tapestry from Burgundy, France now part of the Burrell Collection housed in the Glasgow Museum and Art Galleries. It shows a group of peasants hunting rabbits with nets and white ferrets. This image was reproduced in Renaissance Dress In Italy 1400–1500, by Jacqueline Herald, Bell & Hyman – ISBN 0-391-02362-4.

Gaston Phoebus’ Book Of The Hunt was written in approximately 1389 to explain how to hunt different kinds of animals, including how to use ferrets to hunt rabbits. Illustrations show how multicolored ferrets that were fitted with muzzles were used to chase rabbits out of their warrens and into waiting nets.

[edit] Regulation on ferrets as pets

• Australia – It is illegal to keep ferrets as pets in Queensland or the Northern Territory; in the ACT a licence is required.
• Brazil – They are only allowed if they are given a microchip identification tag and sterilized.
• Iceland – Selling, distributing, breeding and keeping ferrets is illegal in Iceland.^{[citation needed]}
• New Zealand – It has been illegal to sell, distribute or breed ferrets in New Zealand since 2002 unless certain conditions are met.^[29]
• Portugal – It is illegal to keep ferrets as pets in Portugal.^{[citation needed]} Ferrets can only be used for hunting purposes and can only be kept with a government permit.
• United States – Ferrets were once banned in many US states, but most of these laws were rescinded in the 1980s and 90s as they became popular pets. Ferrets are still illegal in California under Fish and Game Code Section 2118^[30] and the California Code of Regulations.^[31] In November of 1995, ferret proponents asked the California Fish and Game Commission to remove the domesticated ferret from the restrictive wildlife list. Additionally, “Ferrets are strictly prohibited as pets under Hawaii law because they are potential carriers of the rabies virus”;^[32] the territory of Puerto Rico has a similar law.^[33] Ferrets are restricted by individual cities, such as Washington, DC and New York City.^[33] They are also prohibited on many military bases.^[33] A permit to own a ferret is needed in other areas, including Rhode Island.^[34] Illinois and Georgia do not require a permit to merely possess a ferret, but a permit is required to breed ferrets.^[35][36] It was once illegal to own ferrets in Dallas, Texas,^[37] but the current Dallas City Code for Animals includes regulations for the vaccination of ferrets.^[38] Pet ferrets are legal in Wisconsin, but an import permit from the state department of agriculture is required to bring one into the state.^[39]
• Japan – It is legal to keep ferrets as pets in Japan. In Hokkaido prefecture, ferrets must be registered with local government.^[40] In other prefectures, no restrictions apply.

[edit] Import restrictions

Australia

Ferrets cannot be imported into Australia. A report drafted in August 2000 seems to be the only effort made to date to change the situation.^[41]

Canada

Ferrets brought from anywhere except the US require a Permit to Import from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Animal Health Office. Ferrets from the US require only a vaccination certificate signed by a veterinarian. Ferrets under three months old are not subject to any import restrictions.^[42]

European Union

As of July 2004, dogs, cats, and ferrets can travel freely within the European Union under the Pet passport scheme. To cross a border within the EU, ferrets require at minimum an EU PETS passport and an identification microchip (though some countries will accept a tattoo instead). Vaccinations are required; most countries require a rabies vaccine, and some require a distemper vaccine and treatment for ticks and fleas 24 to 48 hours before entry. Ferrets occasionally need to be quarantined before entering the country. PETS travel information is available from any EU veterinarian or on government websites.

Japan

Although previously pet ferrets were allowed to be brought into Japan, that is no longer the case. Individual pet ferrets cannot be brought into Japan without proper documents. However, some licensed breeders have a special agreement which still allows the import of ferrets from those companies.^{[citation needed]}

United Kingdom

The UK accepts ferrets under the EU’s PETS travel scheme. Ferrets must be microchipped, vaccinated against rabies, and documented. They must be treated for ticks and tapeworms 24 to 48 hours before entry. They must also arrive via an authorized route. Ferrets arriving from outside the EU may be subject to a six-month quarantine.^[43]

[edit] See also

• Ferret legging
• Stoats in New Zealand

[edit] References

Notes

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mustela putorius

Wikispecies has information related to: Mustela putorius furo

• Lewington, John H. (2007). Ferret Husbandry, Medicine and Surgery (2nd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 9780702028274.
• Thomson, P. D. (1951). “A History of the Ferret”. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences vi (Autumn): 471–480. doi:10.1093/jhmas/VI.Autumn.471.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the political insult see poodle (insult).

The Poodle is a breed of dog, and is regarded as the second most intelligent breed of dog after the Border Collie, and before the German Shepherd.^[1] The poodle breed is found officially in toy, miniature, and standard sizes, with many coat colors. Originally bred as a type of water dog, the poodle is skillful in many dog sports, including agility, obedience, tracking, and even herding. Poodles are elegant in the conformation ring, having taken top honors in many shows, including “Best in Show” at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1991 and 2002, and at the World Dog Show in 2007.

[edit] History

A 17th-century engraving of a poodle.

Poodles are retrievers or gun dogs, and can still be seen in that role. The Poodle is believed to have originated in Germany, where it is known as the Pudel. The English word “poodle” comes from the Low German pudel or puddeln [1], meaning to splash in the water. The breed was standardized in France, where it was commonly used as a water retriever.^[2]

The American Kennel Club states that the large, or Standard, Poodle is the oldest of the three varieties^[3] and that the dog gained special fame as a water worker. So widely was it used as retriever that it was bred with a moisture-resistant coat to further facilitate progress in swimming. Thence came the custom of clipping to pattern which so enhanced the style and general appearance that its sponsors, particularly in France,^{[citation needed]} were captivated by it. All of the Poodle’s ancestors were acknowledged to be good swimmers, although one member of the family, the truffle dog (which may have been of Toy or Miniature size), it is said, never went near the water. Truffle hunting was widely practiced in England, and later in Spain and Germany, where the edible fungus has always been considered a delicacy. For scenting and digging up the fungus, the smaller dogs were favored, since they did less damage to the truffles with their feet than the larger kinds. So it is rumored^[4] that a terrier was crossed with the Poodle to produce the ideal truffle hunter.

Despite the Standard Poodle’s claim to greater age than the other varieties, there is some evidence to show that the smaller types developed only a short time after the breed assumed the general type by which it is recognized today. The smallest, or Toy variety, was developed in England in the 18th century, when the White Cuban became popular there. This was a sleeve dog attributed to the West Indies from whence it traveled to Spain and then to England. The continent had known the Poodle long before it came to England. Drawings by the German artist, Albrecht Durer, establish the breed in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was the principal pet dog of the later 18th century in Spain, as shown by the paintings of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. France had Toy Poodles as pampered favorites during the reign of Louis XVI at about the same period.^[5]

[edit] Characteristics

A Standard poodle retrieving a gamebird.

The Miniature poodle, which is of intermediate size between Medium and Toy.

A brown Standard Poodle at five weeks.

A Toy Poodle at ten weeks.

[edit] Appearance

Most poodles have a dense, curly, non-shedding coat that requires regular grooming. Since poodles do not have the plush double coat of many breeds, their fur is often referred to as “hair”, a term usually reserved for humans.^{[note 1]} Most poodles are solid-colored, and many registries allow only solid colors in conformation shows. “Parti” (short for parti-colored) poodles have large patches of colors different from the main body color. “Phantom” poodles have the color pattern of a black-and-tan dog, although not necessarily black and tan. Solid-colored poodles may either “hold” their color (i.e., stay more or less the same throughout their lives) or “fade” or “clear” to a lighter shade. Usually the ears and the thicker guard hairs hold more of the original color than other hair.^[6]

The tail is usually poofy, often docked in the US and less often in Europe; the practice is illegal in the UK^[7] and Australia.^[8] Tails, when docked, are left much longer than in the past.^{[citation needed]} “Bunny-like tails” (very short-docked tails) are now rarely seen except among puppy mill pet shop dogs. Poodles have drop ears which are never cropped.

[edit] Poodle sizes

Unlike many breeds, poodles can come in a variety of sizes, distinguished by adult shoulder (withers) height. The exact height cutoffs among the varieties vary slightly from country to country. Non-Fédération Cynologique Internationale kennel clubs generally recognize three sizes, standard, miniature, and toy, sometimes as sizes of the same breed, and sometimes as separate breeds. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale recognizes four sizes of one breed, standard, medium, miniature, and toy.^[9] Only the Fédération Cynologique Internationale describes a maximum size for standard poodles. France is the country responsible for the breed in the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, and in this country the puppies of all sizes are listed together.^[10]. The terms royal standard, teacup, and tiny teacup are marketing names, and are not recognized by any major kennel club.

All the Fédération Cynologique Internationale poodles are in Group 9 Companion and Toy, Section 2 Poodle. All the Kennel Club poodles are in the Utility Group. All three sizes of poodle for the Australian National Kennel Council and the New Zealand Kennel Club are in the Non-Sporting Group. The Canadian Kennel Club and the American Kennel Club place standard and miniature sizes in the Non-Sporting Group, and the toy size in the Toy Group. The United Kennel Club places the miniature and toy in the Companion Group and the standard poodle in the Gundog Group.

[edit] Coat

Unlike most dogs which have double coats, poodles have a single layer (no undercoat) of dense, curly fur^[12] that sheds minimally^[13] and could be considered hypoallergenic (though not completely allergen free).^[14] Texture ranges from coarse and woolly to soft and wavy. Poodle show clips require many hours of brushing and care per week, about 10 hours/week for a standard poodle. Poodles are usually clipped down as soon as their show career is over and put into a lower-maintenance cut. Pet clips are much less elaborate than show and require much less maintenance. A pet owner can anticipate grooming a poodle every six to eight weeks. Although professional grooming is often costly, poodles are easy to groom at home if one has the proper equipment.

[edit] Show clips

Many breed registries allow only certain clips for poodles shown in conformation. In American Kennel Club shows, adults must be shown in the “Continental” or “English saddle” clips. Dogs under 12 months old may be shown with a “puppy clip.” The United Kennel Club (US) allows in addition a Sporting Clip, similar to the puppy clip, with the fur trimmed short for hunting dogs.^[15] The American Kennel Club allows the Sporting Clip in Stud Dog and Brood Bitch classes as well.

Some sources believe the show clips evolved from working clips, which originally provided warmth to major joints when the dogs were immersed in cold water. The rest of the body is shaved for less drag in the water. Others express skepticism at this theory, instead citing the French circus as the origin of the entertaining and unique clips.

[edit] Second Puppy

A medium sized poodle in the Scandinavian clip

This clip is also called the Scandinavian clip or puppy clip. It was invented by Swedish and Norwegian show groomers in the 1970s. This clip is the most common one in all sizes for shows in Europe, and is allowed for adult poodles to be shown in the FCI countries. The face, throat, belly, feet and the base of the tail are shaved 5 to 7 days before the show to get a nice smooth appearance of the shaved areas. The hair on the head is left to form a “topknot” that is fixed by using latex bands; in most European countries, hair spray is banned. The rest of the dog is shaped with scissors. It makes the parts of the dog look fluffy.

[edit] Continental clip

In the continental clip the face, throat, feet and part of the tail are shaved. The upper half of the front legs is shaved, leaving “fluffy pompons” around the ankles. The hindquarters are shaved except for pompons on the lower leg (from the hock to the base of the foot) and optional round areas (sometimes called “rosettes”) over the hips. The continental clip is the most popular show clip today.

[edit] English Saddle clip

The English saddle clip is similar to the continental, except for the hindquarters. The hindquarters are not shaved except a small curved area on each flank (just behind the body), the feet, and bands just below the stifle (knee) and above the hock, leaving three pompons. This clip is now rarely seen in Standard Poodles.

[edit] Pet clips

Pet clips can be simple or as elaborate as owners wish. The hair under the tail should always be kept short to keep feces from matting in the poodle’s curls. Most owners also keep the feet and face clipped short to prevent dirt from matting between toes and food from matting around the dog’s muzzle. Beyond these sanitary requirements, desired clips depend on owners’ preferences. Some owners maintain a longer clip in winter than summer, which they groom often with a wire slicker brush to remove tangles and prevent matting.

[edit] Corded coat

A corded Standard Poodle

In most cases, whether a poodle is in a pet or show clip, hair is completely brushed out. Poodle hair can also be “corded” with rope-like mats similar to those of a Komondor or human dreadlocks. Though once as common as the curly poodle, corded poodles are now rare. Corded coats are difficult to keep clean and take a long time to dry after washing. Any poodle with a normal coat can be corded when their adult coat is in. Corded poodles may be shown in all major kennel club shows.^{[16][17][18][19]}

[edit] Temperament

Otherwise notable is this breed’s keen sense for instinctual behavior. In particular, marking and hunting drives are more readily observable than in most other breeds. Even Toys will point birds. Classified as highly energetic, poodles can also get bored fairly easily and have been known to get creative about finding mischief. Poodles like to be in the center of things and are easily trained to do astonishing tricks involving both brains and agility. They have performed in circuses for centuries, beginning in Europe, and have been part of the Ringling Circus in its various forms from its inception. The Grimaldis, the famous British clowns Kenneth and Audrey Austin, “developed a stronger circus act” with a clever Poodle named ‘Twinkle,’ the success of which allowed them to continue performing even as octogenarians.”^[20]

Poodles are extremely people-oriented dogs and generally eager to please. Standard Poodles in particular tend to be good with children. Poodles are adaptable and easy to train. Like most dogs, they appreciate daily exercise, such as a walk or a play session. Most are fairly agile and athletic.

Toy Poodles will play ball and love to fetch. Play time is vital, but one must be sure that they get plenty of rest following long play periods and that fresh water is available at all times.

Housebreaking can be difficult in many dog breeds, but the poodle is one of the easiest to train. Whether going outside or being trained on a pad, they learn quickly where to defecate. They are still animals, however, and they need time to understand what is desired of them. It may take a while, but poodles are quite smart and learn more quickly than most dogs.

[edit] Health

With proper care and nutrition, many enjoy life well into their teens. The Toy Poodle pictured above is 16, and with arthritis medication still has an active life.

The most common serious health issues of standard poodles (listed in order of the number of reported cases in the Poodle Health Registry (as of August 20, 2007) are Addison’s disease, gastric dilatation volvulus (GDV = bloat/torsion), thyroid issues (hyperthyroid and hypothyroid), tracheal collapse, epilepsy, sebaceous adenitis, juvenile renal disease, hip dysplasia, and cancer. Standard poodles are also susceptible to some health issues usually too minor to report to the poodle health registry. The most common of these minor issues are probably ear infections. Ear infections are a problem in all poodle varieties. Ear problems can be minimized by proper ear care. A veterinarian should be consulted if the dog shows signs of an ear infection.

[edit] Addison’s Disease

Addison’s disease is (as of August 20, 2007) the illness most commonly reported to the Poodle Health Registry. The number of reported cases of Addison’s disease is nearly twice as high as the next most common problem (GDV). Addison’s disease is characterized by insufficient production of glucocorticoid and/or mineralocortoid in the adrenal cortex. Addison’s is often undiagnosed because early symptoms are vague and easily mistaken for other conditions. Standard poodles with unexplained lethargy, frequent gastric disturbances, or an inability to tolerate stress should be tested for Addison’s. Addison’s can cause fatal sodium/potassium imbalances, but, if caught early and treated with lifelong medication, most dogs can live a relatively normal life.

[edit] Gastric dilatation volvulus

Standard poodle owners should take special note of the high incidence of GDV in this breed. Excess gas trapped in the dog’s stomach causes “bloat.” Twisting of the stomach (volvulus or “torsion”) causes or is caused by excess gas. Symptoms include restlessness, inability to get comfortable, pacing, or retching without being able to bring up anything. The dog’s abdomen may be visibly swollen, but dogs can bloat or torsion without visible swelling. GDV is a dire emergency condition. If you suspect a dog is bloating, you should not wait to see if he improves. A dog with GDV requires immediate veterinary care. The dog’s survival usually depends on whether the owner can get him to the vet in time. It is a good idea for a standard poodle owner to know the route to the nearest 24-hour emergency clinic, so time is not wasted looking for directions.

[edit] Longevity and causes of death

Standard Poodles in UK, Denmark and USA/Canada surveys had a median lifespan of 11.5 to 12 years.^[21] In a UK survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (30%), old age (18%), GDV (bloat/torsion, 6%), and cardiac disease (5%).^[22]

Miniature and Toy Poodles in UK surveys had median lifespans of 14 to 14.5 years.^[21] In Miniature Poodles, the leading cause of death was old age (39%).^[22] In Toy Poodles, the leading causes of death were old age (25%) and kidney failure (20%).^[22]

Some toy poodles can live up to 20 years, if they have a healthy life and are not overweight.

[edit] Common illnesses

[edit] Poodle mixes

Twelve week old Cockapoo puppy.

Poodles are crossed with other breeds for various reasons, and the resulting puppies (called designer dogs) are described by whimsical portmanteau words, such as cockapoo or spoodle (Cocker Spaniel cross), goldendoodle or groodle (Golden Retriever cross), labradoodle (Labrador cross), pekipoos (Pekingese cross), and many others.

A cross between a shedding breed and a poodle (which doesn’t shed much) does not reliably produce a non-shedding dog. Traits of puppies from crossbreedings are not as predictable as those from purebred poodle breedings, and the crosses may shed or have unexpected or undesirable qualities from the parent breeds.

Poodle crossbreds (also called hybrids) are not recognized by any major breed registry, as crossbreeds are not one breed of dog, but two. If both parents are registered purebreds but of different breeds, it is still not possible to register a puppy as two different breeds. Some minor registries and Internet registry businesses will register dogs as any breed the owner chooses with minimal or no documentation; some even allow the breeder or owner to make up a new “breed name” (portmanteau word).

[edit] Hypoallergenic qualities

Poodles are often cited as a hypoallergenic dog breed. The poodle’s individual hair follicles have an active growth period that is longer than that of many other breeds of dogs; combined with the tightly curled coat, which slows the loss of dander and dead hair by trapping it in the curls, an individual poodle may release less dander and hair into the environment. In addition, most poodles are frequently brushed and bathed to keep them looking their best; this not only removes hair and dander but also controls the other potent allergen, saliva.^[27]

Although hair, dander, and saliva can be minimized, they are still present and can stick to “clothes and the carpets and furnishings in your home”; inhaling them, or being licked by the dog, can trigger a reaction in a sensitive person. A vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter can help clear dander floating in the air.^[28]

The word hypoallergenic, when referring to a dog, is also a misconception; all dogs shed. Poodles shed hair in minimal amounts, and also release dander, but are not as likely to trigger allergies as much as many other breeds.

[edit] Famous poodles

This article may contain excessive, poor or irrelevant examples. You can improve the article by adding more descriptive text. See Wikipedia’s guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (September 2009)

This “In popular culture” section may contain minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject’s impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivial references. (September 2009)

• Bunyip, resident pooch in Australian TV soap ‘The Secret Life of Us‘

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Caniche

• Poodle at the Open Directory Project
• Dog Breed Profile – Poodle

The Labrador Retriever (also Labrador, or Lab for short) is one of several kinds of retriever, a type of gun dog. A breed characteristic is webbed paws for swimming, useful for the breed’s original purpose of retrieving fishing nets. This and their subsequent use as hunting companions, gave them the name retriever. The dogs of this breed are very loving, kind and compassionate to their masters. The Labrador is the most popular breed of dog (by registered ownership) in the world, and is, by a large margin, the most popular breed by registration in Canada, the United States (since 1991),^[2] and the United Kingdom.^[3] It is also the most popular breed of assistance dog in Canada, the United States, Australia, United Kingdom and many other countries,^{[citation needed]} as well as being widely used by police and other official bodies for their detection and working abilities. Typically, Labradors are athletic, and love to swim, play catch and retrieve games, and are good with young children.^[4]

[edit] History

Nell – A St. John’s Dog circa 1856.

The modern Labrador’s ancestors originated on the island of Newfoundland, now part of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada.^[5] The breed emerged over time from the St. John’s Water Dog, (also a founding breed of the Newfoundland dog) through ad-hoc breedings by early settlers in the mid to late 16th century.^[5] The forebears of the St. John’s Dog are not known, but were likely a random-bred mix of English, Irish, and Portuguese working breeds. The Newfoundland (known then as the Greater Newfoundland) is likely a result of the St. John’s Dog breeding with mastiffs brought to the island by the generations of Portuguese fishermen who had been fishing offshore since the 1600s. The smaller short-coat St. John’s Dog (also known as the Lesser Newfoundland) was used for retrieval and pulling in nets from the water. These smaller dogs were the forebears of the Labrador Retriever. The white chest, feet, chin, and muzzle – known as tuxedo markings – characteristic of the St. John’s Dog often appear in Lab mixes, and will occasionally manifest in Labs as a small white spot on the chest (known as a medallion) or stray white hairs on the feet or muzzle..

The St. John’s area of Newfoundland was settled mainly by the English and Irish. Local fishermen originally used the St. John’s dog to assist in carrying ropes between boats, towing dories, and helping to retrieve fishnets in the water. The Labrador’s loyalty and hard working behavior earned him a place on many a fisherman’s boat.^[6]

A number of these dogs were brought back to the Poole area of England in the early 1800s,^[5] then the hub of the Newfoundland fishing trade, by the gentry, and became prized as sporting and waterfowl hunting dogs.^[5] A few kennels breeding these grew up in England; at the same time a combination of sheep protection policy (Newfoundland) and rabies quarantine (England) led to their gradual demise in their country of origin.^[7]

A surviving picture of Buccleuch Avon (b.1885), a foundational dog of many modern Labrador lineages.

The first and second Earls of Malmesbury, who bred for duck shooting on his estate,^[8] and the 5th and 6th Dukes of Buccleuch, and youngest son Lord George William Montagu-Douglas-Scott,^[8] were instrumental in developing and establishing the modern Labrador breed in nineteenth century England. The dogs Avon (“Buccleuch Avon”) and Ned given by Malmesbury to assist the Duke of Buccleuch’s breeding program in the 1880s are considered the ancestors of many modern Labradors.^[9]

The first St. John’s Dog was said to be brought to England around 1820; however, the breed’s reputation had spread to England long before. There is a story that the Earl of Malmesbury saw a St. John’s Dog on a fishing boat and immediately made arrangements with traders to have some of these dogs exported to England. These ancestors of the first labradors so impressed the Earl with their skill and ability for retrieving anything within the water and on shore that he devoted his entire kennel to developing and stabilizing the breed.^[6]

[edit] Early descriptions

Several early descriptions of the St. John’s Water Dog exist. In 1822, explorer W.E. Cormack crossed the island of Newfoundland by foot. In his journal he wrote “The dogs are admirably trained as retrievers in fowling, and are otherwise useful…..The smooth or short haired dog is preferred because in frosty weather the long haired kind become encumbered with ice on coming out of the water.”^[10]

Another early report by a Colonel Hawker described the dog as “by far the best for any kind of shooting. He is generally black and no bigger than a Pointer, very fine in legs, with short, smooth hair and does not carry his tail so much curled as the other; is extremely quick, running, swimming and fighting….and their sense of smell is hardly to be credited….”^[10]

In his book Excursions In and About Newfoundland During the Years 1839 and 1840,^[11] the geologist Joseph Beete Jukes describes the St. John’s Water Dog. “A thin, short-haired, black dog came off-shore to us to-day. The animal was of a breed very different from what we understand by the term Newfoundland dog in England. He had a thin, tapering snout, a long thin tail, and rather thin, but powerful legs, with a lank body, – the hair short and smooth.” wrote Jukes. “These are the most abundant dogs in the country…They are no means handsome, but are generally more intelligent and useful than the others…I observed he once or twice put his foot in the water and paddled it about. This foot was white, and Harvey said he did it to “toil” or entice the fish. The whole proceeding struck me as remarkable, more especially as they said he had never been taught anything of the kind.”

[edit] Name

The foundational breed of what is now the Labrador Retriever was known as the St. John’s Water Dog, St. John’s Dog, or Lesser Newfoundland. When the dogs were later brought to England, they were named after the geographic area known as “the Labrador” or simply Labrador to distinguish them from the larger Newfoundland breed, even though the breed was from the more southern Avalon Peninsula.

[edit] Historical landmarks

The first written reference to the breed was in 1814 (“Instructions to Young Sportsmen” by Colonel Peter Hawker),^[5] the first painting in 1823 (“Cora. A Labrador Bitch” by Edwin Landseer),^[5] and the first photograph in 1856 (the Earl of Home‘s dog “Nell”, described both as a Labrador and a St. Johns dog).^[7] By 1870 the name Labrador Retriever became common in England.^[5] The first yellow Labrador on record was born in 1899 (Ben of Hyde, kennels of Major C.J. Radclyffe),^[5] and the breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1903. The first American Kennel Club (AKC) registration was in 1917.^[5] The chocolate Labrador emerged in the 1930s,^[5] although liver spotted pups were documented being born at the Buccleuch kennels in 1892.^[5] The St. John’s dog survived until the early 1980s, the last two individuals being photographed in old age around 1981.^[7]

[edit] History of subtypes

Yellow and chocolate pups, would occasionally appear (although often culled), until finally gaining acceptance in the 20th century.

The first recognised yellow Labrador was Ben of Hyde, born 1899, and chocolate labs became more established in the 1930s.

Ben of Hyde (b.1899), the first recognised yellow Labrador.

Yellow (and related shades)

In the early years of the breed through to the mid-20th century, Labradors of a shade we would now call “yellow” were in fact a dark, almost butterscotch, colour (visible in early yellow Labrador photographs). The shade was known as “Golden” until required to be changed by the UK Kennel Club, on the grounds that “Gold” was not actually a colour. Over the 20th century a preference for far lighter shades of yellow through to cream prevailed, until today most yellow labs are of this shade.^[12]

Interest in the darker shades of gold and fox red were re-established by English breeders in the 1980s, and three dogs were instrumental in this change: Balrion King Frost (black, born approx. 1976) who consistently sired “very dark yellow” offspring and is credited as having “the biggest influence in the re-development of the fox red shade”,^[12] and his great-grandson, the likewise famous Wynfaul Tabasco (b.1986),^[13] described as “the father of the modern fox red Labrador”, and the only modern fox red Show Champion in the UK. Other dogs, such as Red Alert and Scrimshaw Placido Flamingo, are also credited with passing on the genes into more than one renowned bloodline.^[12]

Chocolate labradors

Jack Vanderwyk traces the origins of all Chocolate labradors listed on the LabradorNet database (some 34,000 Labrador dogs of all shades) to eight original bloodlines. However, the shade was not seen as a distinct colour until the 20th century; before then according to Vanderwyk, such dogs can be traced but were not registered. A degree of crossbreeding with Flatcoat or Chesapeake Bay retrievers was also documented in the early 20th century, prior to recognition. Chocolate labradors were also well established in the early 20th century at the kennels of the Earl of Feversham, and Lady Ward of Chiltonfoliat.^[14]

The bloodlines as traced by Vanderwyk each lead back to three black labradors in the 1880s—Buccleuch Avon (m), and his sire and dam, Malmesbury Tramp (m), and Malmesbury June (f). Morningtown Tobla is also named as an important intermediary, and according to the studbook of Buccleuch Kennels, the chocolates in that kennel came through FTW Peter of Faskally (1908).^[14]

[edit] Description

A black Labrador from English stock.

A Black Lab of American field stock

[edit] Appearance

Labradors are relatively large, with males typically weighing 29–41 kg (65-90 pounds) and females 25–32 kg (55–71 lb). Labs weighing close to or over 100 lbs are considered obese or having a major fault under American Kennel Club standards, although some labs weigh significantly more.^[15] The majority of the characteristics of this breed, with the exception of colour, are the result of breeding to produce a working retriever.

As with some other breeds, the Conformation (typically “English”, “show” or “bench”) and the Field (typically “American” or “working”) lines differ, although both lines are bred in both countries. In general, however, Conformation Labs tend to be bred as medium-sized dogs, shorter and stockier with fuller faces and a slightly calmer nature than their Field counterparts, which are often bred as taller, lighter-framed dogs, with slightly less broad faces and a slightly longer nose; however Field labs should still be proportional and fit within AKC standards. With field labs, excessively long noses, thin heads, long legs and lanky frames are not considered standard. These two types are informal and not codified or standardised; no distinction is made by the AKC or other kennel clubs, but the two types come from different breeding lines. Australian stock also exists; though not seen in the west, they are common in Asia.

The breed tends to shed hair twice annually, or regularly throughout the year in temperate climates.^[9] Some labs shed considerably; however, individual labs vary.^[16] Labrador hair is usually fairly short and straight, and the tail quite broad and strong. The otter-like tail and webbed toes of the Labrador Retriever make them excellent swimmers. The webbing between their toes can also serve as a “snowshoe” in colder climes and keep snow from balling up between their toes- a condition that can be painful to other breeds with hair between the toes. Their interwoven coat is also relatively waterproof, providing more assistance for swimming.

[edit] Official breed standards

There is a great deal of variety among Labs. The following characteristics are typical of the conformation show bred (bench-bred) lines of this breed in the United States, and are based on the AKC standard.^[15] Significant differences between US and UK standards are noted.

• Size: Labs are a medium-large but compact breed. They should have an appearance of proportionality. They should be as long from the withers to the base of the tail as they are from the floor to the withers. Males should stand 22.5–24.5 inches (57–62 cm) tall at the withers and weigh 65–80 lb (29–36 kg). Females should stand 21.5–23.5 inches (55–60 cm) and weigh 55–70 lb (25–32 kg). By comparison under UK Kennel Club standards, height should be 22–22.5 inches (56–57 cm) for males, and 21.5–22 inches (55–56 cm) for females.^[17]

• Coat: The Lab’s coat should be short and dense, but not wiry. The coat is described as ‘water-resistant’ or more accurately ‘water-repellent’ so that the dog does not get cold when taking to water in the winter. That means that the dog naturally has a slightly dry, oily coat. Acceptable colours are black, yellow (ranging fom ivory or creme to fox red), and chocolate.

• Head: The head should be broad with a pronounced stop and slightly pronounced brow. The eyes should be kind and expressive. Appropriate eye colours are brown and hazel. The lining around the eyes should be black. The ears should hang close to the head and are set slightly above the eyes.

• Jaws: The jaws should be strong and powerful. The muzzle should be of medium length, and should not be too tapered. The jaws should hang slightly and curve gracefully back.

• Body: The body should be strong and muscular with a level top line.

The tail and coat are designated “distinctive [or distinguishing] features” of the Labrador by both the Kennel Club and AKC.^[15][17] The AKC adds that “true Labrador Retriever temperament is as much a hallmark of the breed as the ‘otter’ tail.”^[15]

As well, Labradors should not have droopy eyes (like a Basset Hound). The skin should be relatively tight, and you should not be able to see the pinks on the inside of their lids.

[edit] Colour

Different shades of yellow: a usual yellow shade, and a fox red shade.

The three primary colour varieties of the Labrador Retriever

Labrador Retrievers are registered in three colours:^[15] black (a solid black colour), yellow (anything from light cream to “fox-red”), and chocolate (medium to dark brown). Some Labrador retrievers can have markings such as white patches on their chest and other areas, but most commonly they are one solid colour.

Puppies of all colours can potentially occur in the same litter. Colour is determined primarily by two genes. The first gene (the B locus) determines the density of the coat’s pigment granules: dense granules result in a black coat, sparse ones give a chocolate coat. The second (D) locus determines whether the pigment is produced at all. A dog with the recessive d allele will produce little pigment and will be yellow regardless of its genotype at the B locus.^[18] Variations in numerous other genes control the subtler details of the coat’s colouration, which in yellow Labs varies from white to light gold to a fox red. Chocolate and black Labs’ noses will match the coat colour.

[edit] Nose and skin pigmentation

Because Labrador colouration is controlled by multiple genes, it is possible for recessive genes to emerge some generations later and also there can sometimes be unexpected pigmentation effects to different parts of the body. Pigmentation effects appear in regard to yellow Labradors, and sometimes chocolate, and hence the majority of this section covers pigmentation within the yellow Labrador. The most common places where pigmentation is visible are the nose, lips, gums, feet, tail, and the rims of the eyes, which may be black, brown, light yellow-brown (“liver”, caused by having two genes for chocolate),^[19] or several other colours. A Labrador can carry genes for a different colour, for example a black Labrador can carry recessive chocolate and yellow genes, and a yellow Labrador can carry recessive genes for the other two colours. DNA testing can reveal some aspects of these. Less common pigmentations (other than pink) are a fault, not a disqualification, and hence such dogs are still permitted to be shown.^[19] The intensity of black pigment on yellow Labs is controlled by a separate gene independent of the fur colouring.^[19] Yellow Labradors usually have black noses, which may gradually turn pink with age (called “snow nose” or “winter nose”). This is due to a reduction in the enzyme tyrosinase which indirectly controls the production of melanin, a dark colouring. Tyrosinase is temperature dependent—hence light colouration can be seasonal, due to cold weather—and is less produced with increasing age two years old onwards. As a result, the nose colour of most yellow Labs becomes a somewhat pink shade as they grow older.^[19]

A seven-week-old Dudley Lab. The nose and lips are pink or flesh-coloured, the defining aspect of Dudley pigmentation.

A colouration known as “Dudley” is also possible. Dudleys are variously defined as yellow Labs which have unpigmented (pink) noses (LRC), yellow with liver/chocolate pigmentation (AKC), or “flesh coloured” in addition to having the same colour around the rims of the eye, rather than having black or dark brown pigmentation.^[9][19] A yellow Labrador with brown or chocolate pigmentation, for example, a brown or chocolate nose, is not necessarily a Dudley, though according to the AKC’s current standard it would be if it has chocolate rims around the eyes (or more accurately of the genotype eebb). Breed standards for Labradors considers a true Dudley to be a disqualifying feature in a conformation show Lab, such as one with a thoroughly pink nose or one lacking in any pigment along with flesh coloured rims around the eyes. True Dudleys are extremely rare.^[19][20]

Breeding in order to correct pigmentation often lacks dependability. Because colour is determined by many genes, some of which are recessive, crossbreeding a pigmentation non-standard yellow Labrador to a black Labrador may not correct the matter or prevent future generations carrying the same recessive genes. For similar reasons, crossbreeding chocolate to yellow labs is also often avoided.

[edit] Show and field lines

Chocolate Labradors from field-bred stock are typically lighter in build and have a shorter coat than conformation show Labrador.

There are significant differences between field and trial-bred (sometimes referred to as “American”) and show-bred (or “English”) lines of Labradors, arising as a result of specialised breeding. Dogs bred for hunting and field-trial work are selected first for working ability, where dogs bred to compete in conformation shows are selected for their conformation to the standards and characteristics sought by judges in the show ring.

Head and muzzle appearance: American or field (left), and English or show (right), showing the shorter muzzle length, more solid appearance head, and “pronounced” stop of the latter.

While individual dogs may vary, in general show-bred Labradors are heavier built, slightly shorter-bodied, and have a thicker coat and tail. Field Labradors are generally longer legged, lighter, and more lithe in build. In the head, show Labradors tend to have broader heads, better defined stops, and more powerful necks, while field Labradors have lighter and slightly narrower heads with longer muzzles.^[21][22] Field-bred Labradors are commonly higher energy and more high-strung compared to the Labrador bred for conformation showing, and as a consequence may be more suited to working relationships than being a “family pet“.^[21][22] Some breeders, especially those specialising in the field type, feel that breed shows do not adequately recognise their type of dog, leading to occasional debate regarding officially splitting the breed into subtypes.^[23]

In the United States, the AKC and the Labrador’s breed club have set the breed standard to accommodate the field-bred Labrador somewhat. For instance, the AKC withers-height standards allow conformation dogs to be slightly taller than the equivalent British standard.^[24] However, dual champions, or dogs that excel in both the field and the show ring, are becoming more unusual.^[25]

[edit] Temperament

A Labrador participating in dog agility

Labradors are a well-balanced, friendly and versatile breed, adaptable to a wide range of functions as well as making very good pets. As a rule they are not excessively prone to being territorial, pining, insecure, aggressive, destructive, hypersensitive, or other difficult traits which sometimes manifest in a variety of breeds. As the name suggests, they are excellent retrievers. Labradors instinctively enjoy holding objects and even hands or arms in their mouths, which they can do with great gentleness (a Labrador can carry an egg in its mouth without breaking it).^[26] They are also known to have a very soft feel to the mouth, as a result of being bred to retrieve game such as waterfowl. They are prone to chewing objects (though they can be trained out of this behavior). The Labrador Retriever’s coat repels water to some extent, thus facilitating the extensive use of the dog in waterfowl hunting.

Labradors enjoy playing with water

Labradors have a reputation as a very even-tempered breed and an excellent family dog (including a good reputation with children of all ages and other animals),^[9] but some lines (particularly those that have continued to be bred specifically for their skills at working in the field rather than for their appearance) are particularly fast and athletic. Their fun-loving boisterousness and lack of fear may require training and firm handling at times to ensure it does not get out of hand—an uncontrolled adult can be quite problematic. Females may be slightly more independent than males.^[9] Labradors mature at around three years of age; before this time they can have a significant degree of puppy-like energy, often mislabelled as being hyperactive.^[9][27] Because of their enthusiasm, leash-training early on is suggested to prevent pulling when full-grown.^[28] Labradors often enjoy retrieving a ball endlessly and other forms of activity (such as agility, frisbee, or flyball).

Although they will sometimes bark at noise, especially noise from an unseen source (“alarm barking“), Labs are usually not noisy^[9] or territorial. They are often very easygoing and trusting with strangers, and therefore are not usually suitable as guard dogs.^[9]

Labradors have a well-known reputation for appetite, and some individuals may be highly indiscriminate, eating digestible and non-food objects alike.^[26] They are persuasive and persistent in requesting food. For this reason, the Labrador owner must carefully control his/her dog’s food intake to avoid obesity and its associated health problems (see below).^[26]

The steady temperament of Labs and their ability to learn make them an ideal breed for search and rescue, detection, and therapy work. Their primary working role in the field continues to be that of a hunting retriever.

[edit] Exploration

A wet black Labrador exploring the beach.

They do not typically jump high fences or dig. Because of their personalities,(like swimming, playing, running, sleeping, and eating) some Labs climb and/or jump for their own amusement. As a breed they are highly intelligent and capable of intense single-mindedness and focus if motivated or their interest is caught. Therefore, with the right conditions and stimuli, a bored Labrador could “turn into an escape artist par excellence“.^[9][29]

Labradors as a breed are curious, exploratory and love company, following both people and interesting scents for food, attention and novelty value. In this way, they can often “vanish” or otherwise become separated from their owners with little fanfare.^[30] They are also popular dogs if found, and at times may be stolen.^[31] Because of this a number of dog clubs and rescue organisations (including the UK’s Kennel Club) consider it good practice that Labradors be microchipped, with the owner’s name and address also on their collar and tags.^[30][32]

[edit] Use as working dogs

Labradors are a very popular selection for use as guide dogs.

Labradors are an intelligent breed with a good work ethic and generally good temperaments (breed statistics show that 91.5% of Labradors who were tested passed the American Temperament Test.^[33]) Common working roles for Labradors include: hunting, tracking and detection (they have a great sense of smell which helps when working in these areas), disabled-assistance, carting, and therapy work.^[34] Approximately 60–70% of all guide dogs in Canada are Labradors; other common breeds are Golden Retrievers and German Shepherd Dogs.^[35]

The high intelligence, initiative and self-direction of Labradors in working roles is exemplified by dogs such as Endal, who during a 2001 emergency placed an unconscious human being in the recovery position, retrieved his mobile phone from beneath the car, fetched a blanket and covered him, barked at nearby dwellings for assistance, and then ran to a nearby hotel to obtain help.^[36] A number of labradors have also been taught to assist their owner in removing money and credit cards from ATMs with prior training.^[37]

[edit] Health

Many dogs, including Labs such as this twelve year old, show distinct whitening of the coat as they grow older; especially around the muzzle.

Labrador pups should not be brought home before they are 7–10 weeks old. Their life expectancy is generally 10 to 12 years,^[1] and it is a healthy breed with relatively few major problems. Notable issues related to health and well-being include:

[edit] Inherited disorders

• Labs are somewhat prone to hip and elbow dysplasia,^[38] especially the larger dogs,^[39] though not as much as some other breeds.^[40] Hip scores are recommended before breeding and often joint supplements are recommended.
• Labs also suffer from the risk of knee problems. A luxating patella is a common occurrence in the knee where the leg is often bow shaped.
• Eye problems are also possible in some Labs, particularly progressive retinal atrophy, cataracts,^[41] corneal dystrophy^[38] and retinal dysplasia. Dogs which are intended to be bred should be examined by a veterinary ophthalmologist for an eye score.
• Hereditary myopathy, a rare inherited disorder that causes a deficiency in type II muscle fibre. Symptoms include a short stilted gait or “bunny hopping,” and in rare cases ventroflexion of the neck accompanied by a kyphotic posture.^[42]
• There is a small incidence of other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and deafness in labs, either congenitally or later in life.^[16]
• Labradors often suffer from exercise induced collapse, a syndrome that causes hyperthermia, weakness, collapse, and disorientation after short bouts of exercise.^[43]

[edit] Other disorders

Labs are sometimes prone to ear infection, because their floppy ears trap warm moist air. Labs who spend a lot of time in water are additionally prone to infection. This is easy to control, but needs regular checking to ensure that a problem is not building up unseen. A healthy Labrador ear should look clean and light pink (almost white) inside. Darker pink (or inflamed red), or brownish deposits, are a symptom of ear infection. The usual treatment is regular cleaning daily or twice daily (being careful not to force dirt into the sensitive inner ear) and sometimes medication (ear drops) for major cases. As a preventative measure, some owners clip the hair carefully around the ear and under the flap, to encourage better air flow. Labradors also get cases of allergic reactions to food or other environmental factors.

[edit] Obesity

Labradors can easily become overweight, due to their enjoyment of treats, hearty appetites, and endearing behaviour towards people. Lack of activity is also a contributing factor. A healthy Labrador should keep a very slight hourglass waist and be fit and light, rather than fat or heavy-set. Excessive weight is strongly implicated as a risk factor in the later development of hip dysplasia or other joint problems and diabetes, and also can contribute to general reduced health when older. Osteoarthritis is common in older, especially overweight, Labradors. A 14 year study covering 48 dogs by food manufacturer Purina showed that labs fed to maintain a lean body shape outlived those fed freely, by around two years, emphasizing the importance of not over-feeding.^[44]

[edit] Appearance around the world

In the United States, the breed gained wider recognition following a 1928 American Kennel Gazette article, “Meet the Labrador Retriever”. Before this time, the AKC had only registered 23 Labradors in the country,^[7] in part because US and UK hunting styles had different requirements.^[45] Labradors acquired popularity as hunting dogs during the 1920s and especially after World War II, as they gained recognition as combining some of the best traits of the two favourite United States breeds as both game finders and water dogs.^[45]

Outside North America and Western Europe, the Labrador arrived later. For example, the Russian Retriever Club traces the arrival of Labradors to the late 1960s, as household pets of diplomats and others in the foreign ministry.^[46] The establishment of the breed in the Commonwealth of Independent States (ex-USSR) was initially hindered by the relatively small numbers of Labradors and great distances involved, leading to difficulty establishing breedings and bloodlines;^[46] at the start of the 1980s, home-born dogs were still regularly supplemented by further imports from overseas.^[46] Difficulties such as these initially led to Labradors being tacitly cross-bred to other types of retriever.^[46] In the 1990s, improved access to overseas shows and bloodlines is said to have helped this situation become regularised.^[46]

[edit] Demography

The Labrador is an exceptionally popular dog. For example as of 2006:

• Widely considered the most popular breed in the world.^[47][48]
• Most popular dog by ownership in USA (since 1991),^[49][50] UK,^[51] Australia,^[52] New Zealand^[53] Canada,^[54] and Israel.^[55]
• In both the UK and USA, there are well over twice as many Labradors registered as the next most popular breed.^[49][51] If the comparison is limited to dog breeds of a similar size, then there are around 3 – 5 times as many Labradors registered in both countries as the next most popular breeds, the German Shepherd and Golden Retriever.^[49][51]
• Most popular breed of assistance dog in the United States, Australia and many other countries, as well as being widely used by police and other official bodies for their detection and working abilities.^[4] Approximately 60–70% of all guide dogs in the United States are Labradors (see below).^[35]
• Seven out of 13 of the Australian National Kennel Council “Outstanding Gundogs” Hall of Fame appointees are Labradors (list covers 2000–2005).^[56]

There is no global registry of Labradors, nor detailed information on numbers of Labradors living in each country. The countries with the five largest numbers of Labrador registrations as of 2005 are: 1: United Kingdom 2: United States and France (approximately equal), 4: Sweden, 5: Finland.^[57][58] Sweden and Finland have far lower populations than the other three countries, suggesting that as of 2005 these two countries have the highest proportion of labs per million people:

Country	Population (millions)	Labrador registrations	Registrations per million pop.
Finland	5.2	2,236	426.0
France	60.5	9,281	153.4
Sweden	9.0	5,158	570.5
United Kingdom	59.7	18,554	311.0
USA	298.2	10,833	36.3

OFA statistics suggest that yellow and black labs are registered in very similar numbers (yellow slightly more than black); chocolate in lesser numbers.^[57][58]

Note: number of registrations is not necessarily the same as number of living dogs at any given time.

[edit] Famous labradors

As both the most popular breed by registered ownership and also the most popular breed for assistance dogs in several countries, there have been many notable and famous labradors since the breed was recognised.

A selection of a few of the most famous labradors within various categories includes:

Endal wearing his PDSA Gold Medal.

Assistance dogs

• Endal, a service dog in Britain. Among other distinctions, “the most decorated dog in the world” (including “Dog of the Millennium”^[59] and the PDSA’s Gold Medal for Animal Gallantry and Devotion to Duty),^[60] the first dog to ride on the London Eye and the first dog known to work a ‘chip and pin‘ ATM card. By Endal’s death in March 2009, he and his owner/handler Allen Parton had been filmed almost 350 times by crews from several countries, and a film of a year in Endal’s life was in production.^[61][62]

Police, military, rescue and detection dogs

• Zanjeer, a detection dog who detected arms and ammunition used in 1993 Mumbai (Bombay) serial explosions. During his service, his haul was excellent. He helped recover 57 country-made bombs, 175 petrol bombs, 11 military bombs, 242 grenades and 600 detonators. His biggest contribution to the police force and the city was the detection of 3,329 kg of RDX. He also helped detect 18 AK-56 rifles and five 9mm pistols.

• Lucky and Flo, twin Black Labrador counterfeit detection dogs who became famous in 2007 for “sniffing out nearly 2 million pirated counterfeit DVDs” on a six-month secondment to Malaysia in 2007.^[63] Following the multi-million dollar, 6-arrest Malaysian detection, they became the first dogs to be awarded Malaysia’s, “outstanding service award”,^[64] and software pirates were stated to have put a £30,000 contract out for their lives.^[65][66]

• Sabi, an Australian special forces explosives detection dog that spent almost 14 months missing in action (MIA) in Afghanistan before being recovered safe and well in 2009.^[67][68]

Pets

• Former President of the United States Bill Clinton‘s Labradors Buddy and Seamus.
• Former Russian President, and current Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin’s Labrador ‘Koni‘.

Fiction and media

• Labradors have featured variously as pets and significant characters in sitcoms and other TV shows, as well as other portrayals in the media. Bouncer in Neighbours, and Luath in The Incredible Journey, are two TV examples.
• Marley is an American Labrador featured in Marley & Me, a best-selling book by John Grogan, and a subsequent film based on Grogan’s life and times with Marley.

Mascots and advertising

• Since 1972, a yellow Labrador pup known as the Andrex Puppy has been an advertising symbol for Andrex (Cottonelle) toilet tissue.
• Michigan State University has an ongoing tradition of Zeke the Wonder Dog. The original “Zeke” was a yellow Lab, as is the current “Zeke III”, and “Zeke II” was a black Lab.

[edit] Significant crossbreeds

The “Labradoodle” is a popular “designer dog” that is a cross-bred Labrador and Poodle. Originating in Australia, the intent of breeding this cross was to try and create a service dog suitable for allergy sufferers. However the current fashionability of labradoodles has resulted in indiscriminate breeding, and there is no guarantee such a cross will inherit the hypo-allergenic poodle coat.

Some assistant-dog groups use Golden Retriever / Labrador Retriever hybrids (unofficially called a Golden Labrador Retriever) because they believe this cross produces dogs with a excellent temperaments.^[69] However, such crossbreeds are not immune to many of the problems suffered by purebreds, as Golden Retrievers and Labradors have similar health problems.

The assistance dog organization Mira utilises Labrador-Bernese Mountain Dog crosses (“Labernese”) with success.^[70]

[edit] See also

• Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Labrador Retriever

• Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds. Parragon Publishing. ISBN 0-7525-8276-3.
• Fergus, Charles (2002). Gun Dog Breeds, a Guide to Spaniels, Retrievers, and Pointing Dogs. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press. ISBN 1-58574-618-5.